Book II - On the Ten Commandments
On the Ten Commandments
Chapter 1
XI. The First Commandment
You shall not have strange gods before me (Exod 20:3). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.6; II-II.122.2; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) The entire law of Christ depends upon charity. And charity depends on two precepts, one of which concerns loving God and the other concerns loving our neighbor. (See Matthew 22:40.) Now God, in delivering the law to Moses, gave him ten commandments written upon two tablets of stone. (See Exodus 31:18, 32:15–16.) Three of these commandments that were written on the first tablet referred to the love of God; and the seven commandments written on the other tablet related to the love of our neighbor. (See Peter Lombard, Sentences, bk. 3, d. 37 (ed. Quarrachi, 1981, bk. 2, p. 206, n. 138; PL 192:830–33); from Augustine, Sermon 9 (and in De tempore 96), ch. 5, para. 6 (PL 38:79) and also Aquinas, In III Sent. 37, especially 37.1.2, qa. 3; see also In I Sent. 47.1.4; ST II-II.122.1; Disputed Questions on Evil, q. 3, a. 1, ad 17; Commentary on Romans, at 13:9, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1050.) The whole law, therefore, is founded on these two precepts. (See Matthew 22:40; Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, at 22:40, ch. 22, lect. 4, n. 1820; see also Commentary on Romans, at 13:8, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1049; ST I-II.100.3 and ad 1.)
The first commandment which relates to the love of God is: you shall not have strange gods (Exod 20:3). (Parallel texts: ST II-II.94.2, 4; SCG III.120; Commentary on Romans, at 1:7, ch. 1, lect. 4; Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 12:1, ch. 12, lect. 1.) For an understanding of this commandment, one must know how of old it was violated. (See Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, bk. 1, cc. 10–15; see also bk. 3, cc. 15–20. See also Augustine, omissa . . . turba minutorum deorum, “omitting this throng of godlings,” speaking of many gods: City of God 4.9 (PL 41:119; CSEL 40:173), and City of God 7.) Some worshipped demons: (Plato, according to Aquinas, ST II-II.94.1; SCG III.120; Commentary on Romans, at 1:25, ch. 1, lect. 7, n. 143; see also Augustine, speaking of Apuleius Platonicus: City of God 8.14–22 (PL 41:238–47; CSEL 40:376–91).) all the gods of the gentiles are devils (Ps 96 [95]:5), for to each one was his own god. This is the greatest and most detestable of all sins. (See ST II-II.94.3; Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 12:2, ch. 12, lect. 1, n. 713.) Even now there are many who transgress this commandment: all such as practice divinations and fortune-telling. (See Aquinas, On Lots, cc. 4–5; In II Sent. 7.3.2; ST II-II.95.4; SCG III.154.) Such things, according to Augustine, (See Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, bk. 2, ch. 23, para. 36 (PL 34:53; CCSL 32:54); Aquinas, On Astrology; On Lots, cc. 4–5; see also ST II-II.122.2, ad 3; Bonaventure, Collations on the Ten Commandments*, coll. 2, para. 22, 5:514; coll. 3, para. 4, 5:516.)* cannot be done without some kind of pact with the devil: I would not that you should be made partakers with devils (1 Cor 10:20), and again: you cannot be partakers of the table of Christ and of the table of devils (1 Cor 10:21).
Some worshipped the heavenly bodies, (That is, the Egyptians, according to Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 1:23, ch. 1, lect. 7, n. 136 ; see also Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, bk. 3, ch. 15.) believing the stars to be gods: they have imagined the sun and the moon and the circle of the stars to be the gods that rule the world (Wis 13:2). (See Deuteronomy 4:19.) For this reason Moses forbade the Jews to raise their eyes, or adore the sun and moon and stars. (Deuteronomy 4:15, 19: keep therefore your souls carefully . . . lest perhaps lifting up your eyes to heaven, you see the sun and the moon, and all the stars of heaven, and being deceived by error you adore and serve them, which the Lord your God created for the service of all the nations.) The astrologers sin against this commandment in that they say that these bodies are the rulers of souls, when in truth they were made for the use of man whose sole ruler is God. (See Aquinas, On Lots, ch. 4; In II Sent. 15.1.3; ST I-II.9.5, ad 3; I-II.9.5, ad 3; II-II.95.5.)
Others worshipped the lower elements: (Such as followers of Hermes and Varro according to Aquinas in Commentary on Romans, at 1:25, ch. 1, lect. 7, n. 143; ST II-II.94.1; see Augustine, City of God 7.5–6 (PL 41:198–99; CSEL 40:308–11); 4.10 (PL 41:120; CSEL 40:174); see also SCG III.120.) they imagined the fire or the wind to be gods (Wis 13:2). Into this error also fall those who wrongly use the things of this earth and love them too much, as the Apostle says: the covetous person who is a server of idols (Eph 5:5). (See Colossians 3:5; Aquinas, Commentary on Colossians, at 3:5, ch. 3, lect. 1, n. 147.)
Some men have erred in worshipping birds, or other men, or themselves. (These are the ancient inhabitants of Italy according to Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 1:23, ch. 1, lect. 7, n. 136; Peter Lombard, Commentary on the Romans, on Romans 1:23 (PL 191:1330D); but also the Egyptians like Hermes Trismegistus (Augustine, City of God 8.14; PL 41:527; CSEL 40:376–713); see also Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, bk.2, ch. 24; bk. 3, ch. 15.) This arose from two causes. (See ST II-II.94.4.)
The first cause is from their carnal nature. For a father being afflicted with a bitter grief, made to himself the image of his son who was quickly taken away; and him who then had died as a man, he began now to worship as a god, (Wis 14:15). Thus being unable to worship certain men in their presence, they, bowing down, honored them in their absence by making statues of them and worshipping one for the other: (See ST II-II.122.2, ad 2; SCG III.120.) whom they had a mind to honor they made an image that they might honor as present him that was absent (Wis 14:17). Of such also are those men who love and honor other men more than God: he who loves his father or mother more than me, is not worthy of me (Matt 10:37). Put your trust not in princes. (Ps 146 [145]:3).
The second cause is from presumption, for some because of their presumption made themselves be called gods: you have said: ‘I am God, and I sit in the chair of God in the heart of the sea’ (Ezek 28:2). Such are also those who believe more in their own pleasures than in the precepts of God. They worship themselves as gods, for by seeking the pleasures of the flesh, they worship their own bodies instead of God: their god is their belly (Phil 3:19). (See also Aquinas, Commentary on Philippians, at 3:19, ch. 3, lect. 3, n. 141.) We must, therefore, avoid all these things.
XII. The First Commandment, Continued
You shall not have strange gods before me, nor shall you worship them (Exod 20:3, 5). As we have already said, (See above, sect. 11.) the first commandment forbids us to worship other than the one God. We shall now consider five reasons for this.
The first reason is the dignity of God which, were it belittled in any way, would be an injury to God. We see something similar to this in the customs of men. Reverence is due to every degree of dignity. Thus, a traitor to the king is he who robs him of what he ought to maintain. (See ST I-II.94.3; Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 12:2, ch. 12, lect. 1, n. 713.) Such, too, is the conduct of some towards God: they changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of the image of a corruptible man (Rom 1:23). This is highly displeasing to God: I will not give my glory to another (Isa 42:8).
For it must be known that the dignity of God consists in his omniscience, since God is called so from seeing, (That is, etymologically speaking, there is a connection between the root word for God (Gk. θεός) and the root word for seeing or contemplating (Gk. θεωρέω).) and this is one of the signs of divinity: (See John of Damascus, On the Orthodox Faith, bk. 1, ch. 9, para. 3 (PG 94:837A), according to Aquinas, In I Sent. 2, Exposition of the Text; see also Compendium theologiae, ch. 35; Papias, Papias vocabulista, under the word “Deus” (Venice, 1496, reprinted Torino: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1966) p. 91.) show the things that are to come hereafter, and we shall know that you are gods (Isa 41:23). All things are naked and open to his eyes (Heb 4:13). But this dignity of God is denied him by practitioners of divination, (See above, sect. 11.) and of them it is said: should not the people seek a vision from their God for the living and the dead? (Isa 8:19).
The second is his generosity, for we receive every good from God. This also is of the dignity of God, that he is the maker and giver of all good things: when you open your hand, they shall all be filled with good (Ps 105 [103]:28), and again: you open your hand. (Ps 145 [144]:16). And this is implied in the name of God (Deus), which is said to be distributor (dator) of all things, (See above, sect. 12; Aquinas, In I Sent. 2, Exposition of the Text: Deus . . . dicitur a ‘thein,’ quod est currere, vel fovere, quia per omnia vadit, omnia salvans et continens, “Or ‘God’ . . . is said from ‘thein,’ which is to run, or nourish, because he goes through all things, preserving and holding all things together—all of which indicate an activity, therefore and so on”; see also Albert the Great, Commentary on the Sentences, ed. Stephen Borgnet, Opera Omnia 38 (Paris: Vives, 1890–1899), bk. 1, d. 2, a. 11, obj. 1 and 3, 25:64–65; see also Plato, Cratylus 397C, according to Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel, bk. 1, ch. 9, 29c (PG 21:68C).) because he fills all things with his goodness.
You are, indeed, ungrateful if you do not appreciate what you have received from him, and, furthermore, you make for yourself another god; just as the sons of Israel made an idol after they had been brought out of Egypt: (See Exodus 33:1–6.) I will go after my lovers who gave me my bread and my waters (Hos 2:5).
One does this also when one puts too much trust in someone other than God, and this occurs when one seeks help from another: blessed is the man whose help is from you. (Ps 84:5 [83:6]). Thus, the Apostle says: you observe days and months and times and years (Gal 4:9–10).
The third reason is taken from our solemn promise. (That is, the promise undertaken in the sacrament of baptism, see below, sect. 14.) For we have renounced the devil, and we have promised fidelity to God alone.
This is a promise which we cannot break: a man who has violated the law of Moses dies without mercy on the word of two or three witnesses. (Heb 10:28–29). While her husband lives, she shall be called an adulteress, if she be with another man (Rom 7:3), and such ought to be burned. (We have not found this reference.) Woe, then, to the sinner who enters the land by two ways (Sir 2:14). Woe to him who halts between two sides (1 Kgs 18:21).
The fourth reason is because of the great burden imposed by service to the devil: you shall serve strange gods day and night, who will give you no rest (Jer 16:13). The devil is not satisfied with leading to one sin, but tries to lead on to others: whoever sins shall be a slave of sin (John 8:34). It is, therefore, not easy for one to escape from the habit of sin. Thus, Gregory says: the sin which is not remitted by penance soon draws man into another sin. (Gregory the Great, Homilies on Ezekiel the Prophet, on Ezekiel 3:21, bk. 1, homily 11, para. 24 (PL 76:915); see also Morals on the Book of Job, bk. 25, ch. 9, para. 22 (PL 76:334C): peccatum namque quod poenitentia non diluit ipso suo pondere mox ad aliud trahit, “for sin that penance has not washed away, soon by its own weight draws one to another sin”; see also ST I-II.75.4; Commentary on Romans, at 1:24, ch. 1, lect. 7, n. 139.)
The very opposite of all this is true service to God; for his commandments are not a heavy burden: my yoke is sweet and my burden light (Matt 11:30).
A person is considered to have done enough if he does for God as much as what he has done for the sake of sin: for as you yielded your members to serve uncleanness and to greater and greater iniquity, so now yield your members to serve justice for sanctification (Rom 6:19).
But on the contrary, it is written of those who serve the devil: we wearied ourselves in the way of iniquity (Wis 5:7). And again: they have labored to commit iniquity (Jer 9:5).
The fifth reason is taken from the greatness of the reward or prize. In no law are such rewards promised as in the law of Christ. Rivers flowing with milk and honey are promised to the Muslims, to the Jews the land of promise, but to Christians the glory of the angels: they shall be as the angels of God in heaven (Matt 22:30). It was with this in mind that Peter asked: Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life (John 6:69). (See also Matthew 22:30.)
Chapter 2
XIII. The Second Commandment
You shall not take the name of your God in vain (Exod 20:7) (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5, ad 3; I-II.100.6; II-II.122.3; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) This is the second commandment of the law. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.89.2, 3, 6; II-II.98.1, ad 1; In III Sent. 39.1; 39.2, qa. 2, 3; Commentary on Matthew, ch. 5; Commentary on Romans, ch. 1, lect. 5; Commentary on Hebrews, ch. 6, lect. 4.) Just as there is but one God whom we must worship, so there is only one God whom we should reverence in a special manner.
This, first of all, has reference to the name of God: you shall not take the name of your God in vain.
In vain has a threefold meaning. (See Aquinas, On Evil, q. 9, a. 1, resp.)
Sometimes it is said of that which is false: (See ST II-II.122.3, ad 3.) they have spoken vain things every one to his neighbor (Ps 12 [11]:3). One, therefore, takes the name of God in vain when one uses it to confirm that which is not true: love not a false oath (Zech 8:17). Any one so doing does injury to God, to himself, and to all men. It is an insult to God because, when you swear by God, it is nothing other than to call him to witness; (See ST II-II.89.1; In III Sent. 39.1.1.) and when you swear falsely, you either believe God to be ignorant of what is true and false, and thus place ignorance in God, whereas all things are naked and open to His eyes (Heb 4:13). Or you think that God loves a lie, whereas he hates it: you will destroy all who speak lies (Ps 5:6 [7]). Or, again, you detract from his power, as if he were not able to give testimony, or as if he were not able to punish a lie.
Likewise, such a one does an injury to himself, for he binds himself to the judgment of God. (See ST II-II.89.7.) It is the same thing to say, “by God this is so” and such like things, as to say, “may God punish me if it is not so.”
He, finally, does an injury to other men. (See ST I-II.100.5, ad 3.) For there can be no lasting society unless men believe one another. Matters that are doubtful may be confirmed by oaths: an oath in confirmation puts an end to all controversy (Heb 6:16). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Hebrews, at 6:16, ch. 6, lect. 4, n. 321; ST II-II.89.2.) Therefore, he who violates this precept does injury to God, is cruel to himself, and harmful to other men.
Sometimes vain signifies useless: the Lord knows the thoughts of men, that they are vain (Ps 94 [93]:11). God’s name, therefore, is taken in vain when it is used to confirm vain things. In the old law it was forbidden to swear falsely, (You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain (Deut 5:11). See also Exodus 20:16.) but Christ forbade the taking of oaths except in case of necessity. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 39.1.2, ad 1; ST II-II.89.2, obj. 1, ad 1; Commentary on Romans, at 1:9, ch. 1, lect. 5, nn. 80–82.) And the reason for this is that in no part of our body are we so weak as in the tongue, for the tongue no man can tame, as says the blessed James (Jas 3:8). And thus even in light matter one can perjure himself, and therefore it is said: you have heard that it was said to them of old, etc., but I say to you not to swear at all, etc. (Matt 5:33–34). (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 39.1.2, qa. 1–2; ST II-II.89.5, ad 3.) Note well that an oath is like medicine, which is never taken continually but only in times of necessity. Hence, the Lord adds that what is over and above these is evil (Matt 5:37). For one should not swear except in necessity: let not the mouth be accustomed to swearing (Sir 23:9). (See ST II-II.89.2, resp.)
Sometimes in vain means sin or injustice: O sons of men, how long will you be dull of heart? Why do you love vanity? (Ps 4:2 [3]). Therefore, he who swears to commit a sin, takes the name of God in vain: they have thought not well of God and have sworn unjustly. (Likely Wisdom 14:30; exact reference is unclear.) Justice consists in doing good and avoiding evil. Therefore, if you take an oath to steal or commit some crime of this sort, you sin against justice. And although you must not keep this oath, you are still guilty of perjury. Herod did this against John. (Mark 6:17; see also Matthew 14:3–12.) It is likewise against justice when one swears not to do some good act, as not to enter the Church or a religious community. And although this oath, too, is not binding, yet, despite this, the person himself is a perjurer. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 39.1.3, qa. 1; ST II-II.89.7, ad 2; Quodlibet V, q. 13, a. 2; XII, q. 14, a. 2.)
One cannot, therefore, swear to a falsehood, or without good reason, or in any way against justice, and therefore it is said: you shall swear in truth and in judgment and in justice (Jer 4:2). (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 39.1.2, qa. 3; ST II-II.89.3; II-II.98.1, ad 1.)
XIV. The Second Commandment, Continued
You shall not take the name of your God in vain (Exod 20:7)**. However, the name of God may be taken for five purposes.
The first is to confirm something that is said, as in an oath. (See ST II-II.89.1; In III Sent. 39.1.1.) In this we show that God alone is the first truth, and also we show due reverence to God. For this reason it was commanded in the old law that one must not swear except by God: you shall fear the Lord your God, and shall serve him only, and you shall swear by his name (Deut 6:13). They who swore otherwise violated this order: by the name of strange gods you shall not swear (Exod 23:13). Although at times one swears by creatures, nevertheless, it must be known that such is the same as swearing by God. When you swear by your soul or your head, it is as if you bind yourself to be punished by God, as the Apostle says: but I call God to witness upon my soul (2 Cor 1:23). And when you swear by the Gospel, you swear by God who gave the Gospel. But they sin who swear by God for any trivial reason, (See ST II-II.89.2, ad 1; In III Sent. 39.1.2, qa. 2, ad 1.) but not by the Gospel. (See ST II-II.89.2, ad 1; In III Sent. 39.1.2, qa. 2, ad 1.)
The second purpose is that of sanctification: but you are washed, but you are sanctified, but you are justified in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:11). (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 6:11, ch. 6, lect. 2, n. 288.) [Baptism,] however, does not have power except through the invocation of the Trinity: but You, O Lord, are among us, and your name is called upon by us (Jer 14:9). And they shall invoke my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them (Num 6:27).
The third purpose is the expulsion of our adversary; hence, before baptism we renounce the devil: (See above, sect. 12.) only let your name be called upon us (Isa 4:1). Therefore, if one return to his sins, the name of God has been taken in vain.
Again, God’s name is taken in order to confess it: how then shall they call on him, in whom they have not believed? (Rom 10:14). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 10:14, ch. 10, lect. 2, n. 836.) And again: whoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved (Rom 10:13). First of all, we confess by word of mouth that we may show forth the glory of God: and every one who calls on my name, I have created him for my glory (Isa 43:7). Accordingly, if one says anything against the glory of God, he takes the name of God in vain. Second, we confess God’s name by our works, when our very actions show forth God’s glory: *that they may see your good works and glorify your Father (*Matt 5:16). Those who do the contrary are spoken of by the Apostle: through you the name of God is blasphemed among the gentiles (Rom 2:24).
Fourth, it is taken for our defense: the name of the Lord is a strong tower (Prov 18:10). In my name they shall cast out devils (Mark 16:17). There is no other name under heaven given to men, whereby we must be saved (Acts 4:12).
Fifth, it is taken in order to make our works complete. Thus says the Apostle: all that you do in word or work, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ (Col 3:17). Our help is in the name of the Lord (Ps 124 [123]:8). But sometimes it happens that one begins a work imprudently by starting with a vow, and then not completing either the work or the vow. And this also is taking God’s name in vain: if you have vowed anything to God, do not defer paying it (Eccl 5:3).
Chapter 3
XV. The Third Commandment
Remember that you keep holy the Sabbath day (Exod 20:8). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5, ad 2; II-II.122.4; In III Sent. 37.5; Commentary on Isaiah, ch. 56; Commentary on Colossians, ch. 2, lect. 4.) This is the third commandment of the law, and very suitably so.
For we are first commanded to adore God in our hearts, and so we are commanded to worship God alone;
second, with our mouths, hence: you shall not take the name of your God in vain**;
third, with our works, and this is: remember that you keep holy the Sabbath day**. For God wished that a certain day be set aside on which men direct their minds to the service of the Lord. There are five reasons for this commandment.
The first reason was to put aside error, for the Holy Spirit saw that in the future some men would say that the world had always existed: (See Aquinas, On the Eternity of the World; for similar passages see Sermon 14, Beware of the False Prophets; see also Bonaventure, Collations on the Ten Commandments, coll. 2, para. 25, 5:514; coll. 3, para. 5, 5:516.) in the last days there shall come deceitful scoffers (2 Pet 3:3).
God, therefore, wished that one day should be set aside in memory of the fact that he created all things in six days, and that on the seventh day he rested from the creation of new creatures (Gen 2:1–3). (See ST I-II.100.5, ad 2; II-II.122.4; In III Sent. 37.1.5, qa. 1, where he alludes to Rabbi Moses (see Dux seu director dubitantium aut perplexorum, ed. A. Justiniani [Paris: Bade Josse, 1520, reprinted 1964], bk. 1, ch. 66, f. 36v).) This is why the Lord placed this commandment in the law, saying: remember that you keep holy the Sabbath day (Exod 20:8), and why? because God created all things in six days and on the seventh day he rested (Exod 20:11).
The Jews kept holy the Sabbath in memory of the first creation; but Christ at his coming brought about a new creation. (See 1 Corinthians 15:47–49; see also Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 15:47–49, ch. 15, lect. 7, nn. 995–98.) For by the first creation an earthly man was created, and by the second a heavenly man was formed: for in Christ Jesus neither circumcision is worth any thing, nor uncircumcision, but a new creature (Gal 6:15). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Galatians, at 6:15, ch. 6, lect. 4, n. 374.) This new creation is through grace, which came by the Resurrection: that as Christ is risen from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also may walk in newness of life (Rom 6:4). (For if we have been planted together in the likeness of His death, so shall we also be in the likeness of His resurrection (Rom 6:5). See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 6:4, ch. 6, lect. 1, n. 474.) And thus, because the Resurrection took place on Sunday, we celebrate that day, even as the Jews observed the Sabbath on account of the first creation. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 37.1.5, qa. 3, ad 3; Commentary on Isaiah, at 56:2, n. 998.)
The second reason for this commandment is to instruct us in our faith in the Redeemer. For the flesh of Christ was not corrupted in the sepulcher: moreover my flesh also shall rest in hope (Ps 16 [15]:9). Wherefore, God wished that the Sabbath should be observed, and that just as the sacrifices of the old law signified the death of Christ, so should the quiet of the Sabbath signify the rest of his body. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 37.1.5, qa. 3, ad 1; ST II-II.122.4, ad 1; Commentary on Colossians, at 2:17, ch. 2, lect. 4, n. 120; Commentary on Hebrews, at 10:1, ch. 10, lect. 1, n. 480.) But we do not now observe these sacrifices, because with the advent of the truth, figures of it must cease, just as the darkness is dispelled by light. Nevertheless, we keep [the Saturdays] in veneration of the Blessed Virgin, in whom remained a firm faith on that day while Christ was dead.
The third reason is that this commandment was given to strengthen and foreshadow the fulfillment of the promise of rest. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 37.1.5, qa. 3, ad 1; ST II-II.122.4, ad 1; Commentary on Colossians, at 2:17, ch. 2, lect. 4, n. 121; Commentary on Hebrews, at 10:1, ch. 10, lect. 1, n. 480.) For rest indeed was promised to us: and on that day the Lord your God shall give you rest from your labor (Isa 14:3); and we hope for rest from three things: from the labors of the present life, from the struggles of temptations, and from the servitude of the devil. (See Aquinas, Commentary on Isaiah*, at 14:3, n. 411: tria: tempus, cum requiem dederit a laboribus, quo laborasti bellando; concussione captivitatis, qua tenebantur carcere; servitute, qua oppressa es in terra captivitatis, “three things: the time, ‘when God shall give you rest from your labor,’ by which you have labored in waging war; ‘and from your vexation,’ of captivity, by which you were kept in prison; ‘and from bondage,’ by which you were oppressed in the land of your captivity.”)* Christ promised this rest to all those who will come to him, saying: take up my yoke upon you etc., and you shall find rest to your souls (Matt 11:29). However, the Lord, as we know, worked for six days and on the seventh he rested, because it is necessary to do a perfect work: I have labored a little, and have found much rest to myself (Sir 51:35). For the period of eternity exceeds the present time incomparably more than a thousand years exceeds one day. (See Psalm 89:4; 2 Peter 3:8 in the Vulgate.)
Fourth, this commandment was given for the increase of love: for the corruptible body is a load upon the soul (Wis 9:15). And man always tends downwards towards earthly things unless he strives to raise himself above them. It is, indeed, necessary to have a certain time for this; in fact, some do this continually: I will bless the Lord at all times (Ps 34:1 [33:2]). (See Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 33:2, n. 325.) And again: pray without ceasing (1 Thess 5:17). (See Commentary on 1 Thessalonians, at 5:17, ch. 5, lect. 2, n. 130.) These shall enjoy the everlasting Sabbath. There are others who do this during a certain portion of the day: seven times a day I have given praise to you (Ps 119 [118]:164). And some, in order to avoid being entirely apart from God, find it necessary to have a fixed day, lest they become too lukewarm in their love of God: if you call the Sabbath delightful (Isa 58:13). Again: then shall you abound in delights of the Almighty (Job 22:26). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Job, at 22:26, ch. 22, lect. 2, n. 335: quia unusquisque libenter respicit id in quo delectatur subdit ‘et elevabis ad Deum faciem tuam’ id est mentem tuam ut ipsum frequenter contempleris, “Since each man looks with pleasure on what he delights in, he then says, ‘and you will raise your face,’ that is, your mind, ‘up to God,’ so you can contemplate him often.”) And accordingly, this day is not set aside for the sole exercise of games, but to praise and pray to God. Wherefore, Augustine says that it is better or a lesser evil to plow than to play on this day. (See Augustine, Expositions on the Psalms, on Psalm 91, sermon 1, para. 2 (PL 37:1172; CCSL 39:1280): melius est enim arare quam saltare, “for it is better to plow than to dance”; see also Psalm 32, sermon 1, para. 6 (PL 36:281; CCSL 38:251–52).)
Lastly, we are given this commandment in order to exercise works of piety. For some are so cruel to themselves and to others that they labor ceaselessly all on account of money. This is true especially of the Jews, who are most avaricious: (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 37.1.6, ad 1; ST I-II.105.3, ad 3; II-II.78.1, ad 2; On Evil, q. 13, a. 3, ad 1.) observe the day of the Sabbath that your man-servant and your maid-servant may rest, even as thyself (Deut 5:14). This commandment, therefore, was given for all these reasons.
XVI. The Third Commandment, Continued
Remember that you keep holy the Sabbath day (Exod 20:8). We have already said that, as the Jews celebrated the Sabbath, so do we observe the Sunday and all principal feasts. (See ST II-II.122.4, ad 1; Commentary on Matthew, at 20:23, ch. 20, lect. 2, n. 1872.) Let us now see in what way we should celebrate these days. We ought to know that God did not say to “keep the Sabbath,” but to remember to keep the Sabbath holy. The word “holy” may be understood in two ways. (See ST II-II.81.8.) Sometimes “holy” is the same as pure, as the Apostle says: but you are washed, but you are sanctified (1 Cor 6:11). (See above, sect. 14.) Sometimes “holy” is said of a thing consecrated to the worship of God. Therefore, in these two ways we ought to celebrate the feasts, that is, both purely and by giving ourselves over to divine service. Therefore, we shall consider two things regarding this commandment.
First, (See below, sect. 16.) what should be avoided on a feast day,
and second, (See below, sect. 17.) what we should do.
We ought to avoid three things.
The first is servile work: neither do any work; sanctify the Sabbath day (Jer 17:22). (See also Jeremiah 17:24, 27.) And so also it is said in the law: you shall do no servile work therein (Lev 23:25). Now, servile work is bodily work; for the work of the mind is free, for instance, the exercise of the intellect and such like. And one cannot be servilely bound to do this kind of work. We ought to know, however, that servile work can be done on the Sabbath for four reasons.
The first reason is necessity. Wherefore, the Lord excused the disciples plucking the ears of corn on the Sabbath. (See Matthew 12:3–5.)
The second reason is when the work is done for the service of the Church; (See Matthew 12:5.) as it says in the Gospel that the priests did all things necessary in the temple on the Sabbath day.
The third reason is for the good of our neighbor; (See Matthew 12:10–13 and parallel texts.) for on the Sabbath the Lord cured one having a withered hand, (See Luke 13:15 and Matthew 12:11.) and he refuted the Jews who reprimanded him, by citing the example of the donkey. (See Leviticus 12:3.)
And the fourth reason is the authority of our superiors. Thus, God commanded the Jews to circumcise on the Sabbath. (See John 7:22–23.)
A second thing to be avoided on the Sabbath is sin: take heed to your souls, and carry no burdens on the Sabbath day (Jer 17:21). This weight or burden on the soul is sin: my iniquities as a heavy burden are become heavy upon me (Ps 38:5 [37:5]). Now, sin is a servile work because whoever commits sin is the servant of sin (John 8:34). (See Aquinas, Commentary on John, at 8:34, ch. 8, lect. 4, n. 1204.) Therefore, when it is said, you shall do no servile work therein (Lev 23:7), it can be understood of sin. Thus, one who sins on the Sabbath violates this commandment in two ways, for he sins both by working and by sinning: my soul hates your new moon and your solemnities, and why? Because your assemblies are wicked (Isa 1:13–14).
A third thing to avoid on the Sabbath is idleness: for idleness has taught much evil (Sir 33:29). Jerome says: always do some good work, and the devil will always find you occupied. (See Jerome, Epistle 125, “Ad Rusticum,” para. 11 (PL 22:1078; CSEL 56:130): fac et aliquid operis, ut semper te diabolus inveniat occupatum; see below, sect. 31.) Hence, it is not good for one to keep only the principal feasts, if on the others one would remain idle. The king’s honor loves judgment (Ps 99 [98]:4), that is to say, discretion. Wherefore, we read that certain of the Jews were in hiding, and their enemies fell upon them; but they, believing that they were not able to defend themselves on the Sabbath, were overcome and killed. (1 Maccabees 2:31–38.) The same thing happens to many who are idle on the feast days: the enemies have seen her, and have mocked at her Sabbaths (Lam 1:7). But all such should do as those Jews did, of whom it is said: (See 1 Maccabees 2:41: omnis homo quicumque venerit ad nos in bello die sabbatorum, pugnemus adversus eum et non moriemur omnes, sicut mortui sunt fratres nostri in occultis; see also ST I-II.100.8, obj. 4, ad 4.) whoever shall come up against us to fight on the Sabbath day, we will fight against him (1 Macc 2:41). (See ST II-II.122.4, ad 3.)
XVII. The Third Commandment, Continued
Remember to keep holy the Sabbath day (Exod 20:8). We have already said (See above, sect. 16.) that man must keep the feast days holy; and that “holy” is considered in two ways, namely that which is pure and that which is consecrated to the Lord. (See above, sect. 16.)
Moreover, we have indicated what things we should abstain from on these days. Now it must be shown with what we should occupy ourselves, and they are three in number.
The first is the offering of sacrifices. In the Book of Numbers it is written how God ordered that on each day there be offered one lamb in the morning and another in the evening, but on the Sabbath day the number should be doubled (Num 28:4). And this showed that on the Sabbath we should offer sacrifice to God from all that we possess: all things are yours; and we have given you what we received from your hand (1 Chr 29:14).
We should offer, first of all, our soul, being sorry for our sins: a sacrifice to God is an afflicted spirit (Ps 51:17 [50:19]); and also pray for his blessings: let my prayer be directed as incense in your sight (Ps 141 [140]:2). Feast days were instituted for that spiritual joy which is the effect of prayer. Therefore, on such days our prayers should be multiplied.
Second, we should offer our body, by fasting: I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercy of God, that you present your bodies a living sacrifice (Rom 12:1), and also by praising God: the sacrifice of praise shall honor me (Ps 50 [49]:23). And thus, on these days our hymns should be more numerous.
Third, we should sacrifice our possessions by giving alms: and do not forget to do good, and to impart; for by such sacrifice God’s favor is obtained (Heb 13:16). And this alms ought to be more than on other days because the Sabbath is a day of communal joys: send portions to those who have not prepared for themselves, because it is the holy day of the Lord (Neh 8:10).
Our second duty on the Sabbath is to be eager to hear the word of God. This the Jews did daily: the voices of the prophets which are read every Sabbath (Acts 13:27). Therefore Christians, whose justice should be more perfect, ought to come together on the Sabbath to hear sermons and participate in the services of the Church: he who is of God hears the words of God (John 8:47).
We likewise ought to speak with profit to others: let no evil speech proceed from your mouth; but what is good for sanctification (Eph 4:29). These two practices are good for the soul of the sinner, because they change his heart for the better: are not my words as a fire and as a hammer that breaks the rock in pieces? (Jer 23:29). The opposite effect is had on those, even the perfect, who neither speak nor hear profitable things: evil communications corrupt good manners (1 Cor 15:33). Your words have I hidden in my heart (Ps 119 [118]:11); for the word of the Lord enlightens the ignorant: your word is a lamp to my feet (Ps 119 [118]:105), and inflames the lukewarm: the word of the Lord inflamed him (Ps 105 [104]:19).
Third, the contemplation of divine things should be exercised on the Sabbath. However, this is for the more perfect: be still and see that I am God (Ps 46:10 [45:11]). This is because of the quiet of the soul. For just as the tired body desires rest, so also does the soul. But the soul’s proper place is God: be for me, O Lord, a God, a protector, and a house of refuge (Ps 31:2 [30:3]). There remains therefore a day of rest for the people of God (Heb 4:9). When I go into my house, I shall repose myself with [wisdom] (Wis 8:16).
However, before the soul arrives at this rest, three other rests must precede.
The first is the rest from the turmoil of sin: but the wicked are like the raging sea which cannot rest (Isa 57:20).
The second rest is from the passions of the flesh, because the flesh lusts against the spirit (Gal 5:17).
The third is rest from the occupations of the world: you are careful and troubled about many things (Luke 10:41).
And then after all these things the soul rests peacefully in God: you will call the Sabbath delightful (Isa 58:13–14). The saints gave up everything to possess this rest, for it is a pearl of great price which he who finds, sells all he has and buys (Matt 13:44–46). For this rest is eternal joy: this is my rest for ever and ever. (Ps 132 [131]:14). And to this rest may the Lord bring us all.
Chapter 4
XVIII. The Fourth Commandment
Honor your father and your mother (Exod 20:12). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5, ad 4; II-II.122.5; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) Perfection for man consists in the love of God and of neighbor. (See above, sect. 11.) Now, the three commandments which were written on the first tablet pertain to the love of God; the others pertaining to love of neighbor were written on the second tablet.
But as blessed John says, we must love, not in word nor in tongue, but in deed and in truth (1 John 3:18). For a man to love thus, he must do two things, namely avoid evil and do good. Hence, certain of the commandments prescribe good acts, while others forbid evil deeds. (See ST II-II.122.2, ad 1; Commentary on Romans, at 13:9, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1051.) And we must also know that to avoid evil is in our power; but we are incapable of doing good to everyone. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.31.2; Commentary on Galatians, ch. 6, lect. 2; ST II-II.101.2; Commentary on 2 Corinthians, ch. 12, lect. 5; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 9, lect. 2.) Thus, Augustine says that we should love all, but we are not bound to do good to all. (See Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, bk. 1, ch. 28, para. 29 (PL 34:30; CCSL 32:22): omnes autem aeque diligendi sunt: sed cum omnibus prodesse non possis, his potissium consulendum est, qui pro locorum et temporum . . . constrictius tibi quasi quadam sorte iunguntur, “all people are to be loved equally; but since you cannot be of service to everyone, you have to take greater care of those who are more closely joined to you by a turn, so to say, of fortune’s wheel, whether by occasion of place or time, or any other such circumstance.” See also Aquinas, On the Virtues, q. 2, a. 8; see also ST II-II.31.2, ad 1; Commentary on Galatians, at 6:10, ch. 6, lect. 2, n. 364.) But among those to whom we are bound to do good are those in some way united to us. Thus, if any man does not take care of his own, etc. (1 Tim 5:8). (See also Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Timothy, at 5:8, ch. 5, lect. 1, n. 191.) Now, amongst all our relatives there are none closer than our father and mother. And therefore, as Ambrose says, we ought to love God first, and then our father and mother. (See Ambrose, Commentary on Luke, bk. 7, para. 136 (PL 15:1735A–B); bk. 8, para. 74 (PL 15:1788A–B).) Hence: honor your father and mother**. The Philosopher also gives another reason for this honor to parents, in that we cannot make an equal return to our parents for the great benefits they have granted to us; and, therefore, an offended parent has the right to send his son away, but the son has no such right. (Aristotle, Ethics 8.14, 1163b15‒20; see also Aquinas, Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 8, lect. 14, nn. 1754–55.)
Parents, indeed, give their children three things. (Parallel text: ST II-II.102.2. See Aquinas, Commentary on Ephesians, at 6:2, ch. 6, lect. 1, n. 339: quia Deus honorandus est sicut principium nostri esse, et quia parentes sunt etiam principium nostri esse, et quia ut dicitur VI Ethic., tria habemus a parentibus, scilicet esse, vivere et disciplinam; ideo conveniens est, ut post mandata ordinata ad Deum, primum esset ordinatum ad parentes; “God must be honored as the source of our existence, and our parents also as the source of our existence. The sixth book of the Ethics points out that we have three things from our parents: existence, life and education. Thus it is fitting that after the commandments related to God, the first would be in reference to our parents”; see also Aristotle, Ethics 8.12, 1162a4–7 and Aquinas, Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 8, lect. 12, nn. 1715–16: filii habent amicitiam ad parentes sicut ad quoddam bonum superexcellens, quia ipsi sunt maxime benefactores in quantum ipsi sunt filiis causa essendi et mutriendi et disciplinae; “children have friendship for their parents as to a kind of superior good. The reason is that parents are special benefactors—the cause of their children’s existence, upbringing, and training”; bk. 9, lect. 2, n. 1782; ST I-II.100.5, ad 4.)
The first is that they brought them into being: honor your father, and forget not the groanings of your mother; remember that through them you were born (Sir 7:29–30).
Second, they furnish nourishment and the support necessary for life. For a child comes naked into the world (Job 1:21), but he is provided for by his parents.
The third is instruction: we have had fathers of our flesh for instructors (Heb 12:9). Do you have children? Instruct them (Sir 7:25). Parents, therefore, should give instruction without delay to their children, because a young man according to his way, even when he is old will not depart from it (Prov 22:6). And again: it is good for a man when he has borne the yoke from his youth (Lam 3:27).
Now, the instruction which Tobias gave his son was this: to fear the Lord and to abstain from sin (Tob 4:6). This is indeed contrary to those parents who approve of the misdeeds of their children. As it is said: for the children that are born of unlawful beds, are witnesses of wickedness against their parents in their trial (Wis 4:6).
Hence God punishes the sin of parents in their children. (See Exodus 34:7; Deuteronomy 5:9; Jeremiah 22:18; Ezekiel 18:1–32.)
Children, therefore, receive from their parents birth, nourishment, and instruction.
Now, because we owe our birth to our parents, we ought to honor them more than any other superiors, because from such we receive only temporal things, except for God from whom we have our soul: he who fears God honors his parents, and will serve them that brought him into the world as his masters in word and work (Sir 3:8). (As noted in the Vulgate.) And in doing this you shall also honor thyself, because as it is said: the glory of a man is from the honor of his father, and a father without honor is the disgrace of his son (Sir 3:13).
Again, since we receive nourishment in our childhood, we must support them in their old age: son, support the old age of your father, and grieve him not in his life, etc**. (Sir 3:14).
Third, because they have instructed us: children, obey your parents in all things (Col 3:20). This excepts, of course, those things which are contrary to God. Jerome says: the highest kind of obedience in this case is to be cruel to your father: (See Jerome, Epistle 14, para. 2 (PL 22:348; CSEL 54:47): licet in limine pater iaceat, per calcatum perge patrem . . . pietatis genus est in hac re esse crudelem, “even if your father should throw you out onto the threshold, carry on with spurning him . . . for in this case, it is a kind of piety to be cruel.”) if any man hate not his father and mother, etc. (Luke 14:26). This is to say that God is in the truest sense your Father because he made and created you (Deut 32:6). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Ephesians, at 6:1, ch. 6, lect. 1, nn. 337–38; cf. Aristotle, Ethics 8.12, 1162a4–7; Aquinas, Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 8, lect. 1, n. 1715.)
XIX. The Fourth Commandment, Continued
Honor your father and your mother (Exod 20:12). (See above, sect. 18.) Among all the commandments, this one alone has a promise attached to it: that you may be long-lived upon the land. The reason for this is lest it be thought that there is no reward for those who honor their parents, seeing that it is a natural obligation. Hence it must be known that five most desirable rewards are promised to those who honor their parents.
The first reward is grace for the present life, and glory in the life to come, which are greatly to be desired: honor your father that a blessing may come upon you from God (Sir 3:9). The very opposite comes upon those who dishonor their parents, for they are cursed in the law by God. (See Deuteronomy 27:16.) It is also written: he who is unfaithful in that which is little, is also unfaithful in what is great (Luke 16:10). But this our natural life is as nothing compared with the life of grace. And so, therefore, if you do not acknowledge the blessing of the natural life which you owe to your parents, then you are unworthy of the life of grace, which is greater, and all the more so for the life of glory, which is the greatest of all blessings.
The second reward is natural life: he who honors his father shall enjoy a long life (Sir 3:7). Now a long life is a full life, and it is not observed in time but in activity, as the Philosopher observes. (See Aristotle, Ethics 1.7, 1098a7‒20; Aquinas, Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 1, lect. 10, nn. 127–30.) Life, however, is full inasmuch as it is a life of virtue; so a man who is virtuous and holy enjoys a long life even if in body he dies young. Thus, it is said: being perfect in a short space, he fulfilled a long time (Wis 4:13). Thus, for example, he is a good merchant who does as much business in one day as another would do in a year. And note well that it sometimes happens that a long life may lead up to a spiritual as well as a bodily death, as was the case with Judas. (See Matthew 27:5; Acts 1:18; Aquinas, Commentary on Ephesians, at 6:3, ch. 6, lect. 1, nn. 339–40; ST II-II.122.5, ad 4.)
Therefore, the second reward for keeping this commandment is a long life for the body. But the very opposite, namely death is the fate of those who harm their parents. (See ST II-II.122.5, ad 4.) We receive our life from them; and just as the soldiers owe fealty to the king, and lose their rights in case of any treachery, so also they who dishonor their parents deserve to forfeit their lives: the eye that mocks his father and despises the labor of his mother in bearing him, let the ravens pick it out, and the young eagles eat it (Prov 30:17).
Here the ravens signify officials of kings and princes, who in turn are the young eagles. But if it happens that such are not bodily punished, they nevertheless cannot escape death of the soul. It is not well, therefore, for a father to give too much power to his children: do not give to a son or wife, brother or friend, power over you while you live (Sir 33:21). For a father naturally treasures his children, but the contrary is not always the case.
The third reward is to have pleasing children: he who honors his father shall have joy in his own children (Sir 3:6). Again: with what measure you measure, it shall be measured to you again (Matt 7:2).
The fourth reward is a praiseworthy reputation: for the glory of a man is from the honor of his father (Sir 3:13). And again: of what an evil fame is he who forsakes his father and he is cursed of God who angers his mother (Sir 3:18).
A fifth reward is to have riches: the father’s blessing establishes the houses of his children, but the mother’s curse roots up the foundation (Sir 3:11).
XX. The Fourth Commandment, Continued
Honor your father and your mother. A man is called father not only by reason of carnal generation, but also for other reasons, and to each of these there is due a certain reverence. (See ST II-II.102.1–2.)
Thus, the apostles and the saints are called fathers (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 4:15, ch. 4, lect. 3, nn. 221–22.) because of their doctrine and their example of faith: for if you have many instructors in Christ, yet not many fathers. For in Christ Jesus, by the Gospel, I have begotten you (1 Cor 4:15). And, therefore, it is said: let us now praise men of renown and our fathers (Sir 44:1). However, let us praise them not in word only, but by imitating them; and we do this if nothing is found in us contrary to what we praise in them: whose faith follow, considering the end of their conversation (Heb 13:7).
Our superiors in the Church (See Aquinas, Commentary on 2 Corinthians, at 12:14, ch. 12, lect. 5, n. 499.) are also called fathers and are to be venerated: he who despises you, despises me (Luke 10:16) and he who receives you, receives me (Matt 10:40). For they are ministers of God and therefore we ought to honor them: by obedience: obey your prelates (Heb 13:17); and by paying tithes: (See Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, at 20:23, ch. 20, lect. 2, n. 1872; ST II-II.87.1.) honor the Lord with your substance (Prov 3:9).
Rulers and kings (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 13:7, ch. 13, lect. 1, n. 1043: principi debetur et timor et honor: timor quidem, inquantum est dominus. . . . Inquantum autem quasi pater providet bonis quae sunt in laudem eorum, debetur illi honor, “a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is lord. . . . But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor.”) are called fathers: father, if the prophet had commanded you do some great thing etc. (2 Kgs 5:13). We call them fathers because their whole care is the good of their people. And we honor them by being subject to them: let every soul be subject to higher powers (Rom 13:1). We should be subject to them not merely through fear, but through love, not merely because of wrath, but because of the dictates of our conscience (Rom 13:5). And the reason of this is because, according to the Apostle, there is no power but from God (Rom 13:1). (See above, section 20.) And so, to all such we must render what we owe them: tribute, to whom tribute is due (Rom 13:7); fear the king (Prov 24:21).
Our benefactors also are called fathers: be merciful to the fatherless as a father (Sir 4:10). For it belongs to a father to do good for his children, and we are bound to repay them in doing good: forget not the kindness of your surety: for he has given his life for you (Sir 29:19). On the other hand, the thankless shall receive a punishment such as is written: the hope of the unthankful shall melt away as ice (Wis 16:29).
Old men also are called fathers: ask your father, and he will declare to you; your elders and they will tell you (Deut 32:7). Rise up before the grey head, and honor the person of the aged man (Lev 19:32). In the company of great men take not upon you to speak (Sir 32:13).
Chapter 5
XXI. The Fifth Commandment
You shall not kill (Exod 20:13). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) In the divine law which tells us we must love God and our neighbor, it is commanded that we not only do good but also avoid evil. (See above, section 18.) The greatest evil that can be done to one’s neighbor is to take his life. This is prohibited in the commandment: you shall not kill**. In connection with this commandment there are three errors. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.64.1; In I Sent. 39.2.2; SCG III.112.)
Some have said that it is not permitted to kill even brute animals. (As Augustine writes about the Manichaeans in Against Faustus the Manichee, bk. 6, cc. 6, 8 (PL 42:232–36; CSEL 25:292–99); see also City of God, bk. 1, ch. 20 (PL 41:34; CSEL 40:37 and following): quidam hoc praeceptum etiam in bestias ac pecora conantur extendere, ut ex hoc nullum etiam illorum liceat occidere, “on this basis, some try to extend this commandment even to beasts and cattle and claim that it is not even allowed to kill any of them.” See also what Epiphanius relates about Marcionism in Panarion 42.24 (PG 41:739–42).) But this is false, because it is not a sin to use that which is subordinate to the power of man. It is in the natural order that plants be the nourishment of animals, certain animals nourish others, and all for the nourishment of man: even as the green herbs have I delivered them all to you (Gen 9:3). The Philosopher says in the Politics that hunting is like a just war. (See Aristotle, Politics 1.8, 1256b24–27, and Aquinas, Commentary on Politics, bk. 1, lect. 6.) And the Apostle says: whatsoever is sold in the meat market, eat. (1 Cor 10:25). Therefore, the sense of the commandment is: “you shall not kill men.” (See Aquinas, In I Sent. 39.2.2; ST II-II.64.1; SCG III.112; Commentary on Politics, bk.1, lect. 6.)
Some have held (Source not found. See, perhaps, Augustine, City of God, bk.1, ch. 17 and following (PL 41:30 and following; CSEL 40:31 and following).) that the killing of man is prohibited altogether. (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.8, ad 3; II-II.25.6, ad 2; 64.2; 108.3; SCG III.146; On the Virtues, q. 2, a. 8, ad 10; Commentary on Romans, ch. 12, lect. 3.) They believe that judges in the civil courts are murderers, who condemn men to death according to the laws. Against them Augustine says that God by this commandment does not take away from himself the right to kill. (See Augustine, City of God, bk.1, ch. 21 (PL 41:35; CSEL 40:39–40).) Thus, we read: I will kill and I will make to live (Deut 32:39). It is, therefore, lawful for them to kill according to a mandate from God, (See ST I-II.100.8, ad 3: ipse enim est qui poenam mortis infligit omnibus hominibus iustis et iniustis pro peccato primi parentis; cuius sententiae si homo sit executor auctoritate divina, non erit homicida, sicut nec Deus, “for it is God who inflicts the punishment of death on all men, both the just and the unjust, because of the sin of our first parent; and if a man executes this sentence by God’s authority, then he will not be committing homicide, just as God does not commit homicide.” Here Aquinas references Augustine, On Free Will, bk. 1, cc. 4–5, paras. 10, 12 (PL 32:1226–27; CSEL 74:10–13); see also Augustine, Seven Questions Concerning the Heptateuch, bk. 2, ch. 71 (PL 34:622; CSEL 28:139): non putandum est fieri contra hoc praeceptum quando lex occidit, vel occidi aliquem deus iubet; ille enim facit qui iubet, quando ministerium negare non licet, “it should not be thought that this commandment is being contravened when the Law kills or God orders someone to be killed; for he who commands does it, when it is not allowed to refuse this responsibility.”) since in this God operates, and every law is a command of God: by me kings reign, and lawgivers decree just things (Prov 8:15). And again: for he does not bear the sword in vain; for he is God’s minister (Rom 13:14). To Moses also it was said: evil-doers you shall not allow to live (Exod 22:18). And thus, that which is lawful to the Lord is lawful for his ministers when they act by his mandate. (See ST II-II.64.2; SCG III.146; On Virtues, q. 2, aa. 8–10.) It is evident that God, since he is the author of the law, does not sin by inflicting death on account of sin: the wages of sin is death (Rom 6:23). Neither does his minister sin in inflicting that punishment. The sense, therefore, of you shall not kill** is that one shall not kill by one’s own authority. (See Aquinas, In IV Sent*. 37.2.1; ST II-II.64.3; II-II.65.1, ad 2.)*
There are those who held that although this commandment forbids one to kill another, yet it is lawful to kill oneself. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.59.3, ad 2; 64.5; 124.1, ad 2; In IV Sent. 49.5.3, qa. 2; Commentary on Hebrews, ch. 11, lect. 7; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 5, lect. 17.) Thus, there are the examples of Samson (Judg 16:28–30), (See Judges 14:6, 19; 15:14; see also Augustine, City of God*, bk. 1, ch. 21 (PL 41:35; CSEL 40:40); Aquinas, In IV Sent. 49.5.3, qa. 2, ad 6; ST II-II.64.5, ad 4; Commentary on Hebrews, at 11:32, ch. 11, lect. 7, nn. 629–31.)* and Cato, (Augustine discusses Cato of Utica in City of God, bk. 1, ch. 23 (PL 41:36‒37; CSEL 40:43); see also Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, bk. 1, ch. 30; On Duties, bk. 1, ch. 31.) and certain virgins who threw themselves into the flames, as Augustine relates. (See Augustine, City of God, bk. 1, ch. 26 (PL 41:39; CSEL 40:46): sed quaedam, inquiunt, sanctae feminae tempore persecutionis, ut insectatores suae pudicitae devitarent, in rapturum atque necaturum se fluvium proiecerunt, “but, they say, in a time of persecution, certain holy women, in order to escape those who were attacking their chastity, threw themselves into a river that would carry them away and drown them”; see also Ambrose, On Virginity, bk. 3, ch. 7 (PL 16:299‒232); Epistle 37, paras. 36‒38 (PL 16:1093); Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, bk. 8, ch. 12 (PG 10:769‒772; SC 55:25‒26); see also Aquinas, ST II-II.124.1, obj. 2 and ad 2.) But Augustine also explains this by saying that he who kills himself kills a man. (See Augustine, City of God, bk. 1, ch. 20 (PL 41:35; CSEL 40:39): non occides: nec alterum ergo, nec te. Neque enim qui se occidit, aliud quam hominem occidit; “we understand this commandment—‘you shall not kill’—to apply to human beings, both to others and to oneself, for to kill oneself is nothing else than to kill a human being”; ch. 17 (PL 41:31): qui se occidit, homicida est, “anyone who kills himself is certainly a murderer.” See also ST II-II.59.3, ad 2; II-II.64.5; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 5, lect. 17; cf. Aristotle, Ethics 5.11, 1138a1‒b14.) If, therefore, it is not lawful to kill another except by the authority of God, then neither is it lawful to kill oneself except by the authority of God or by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as was the case of Samson.
XXII. The Fifth Commandment, Continued
You shall not kill (Exod 20:13)**. It ought to be known that to kill a man may happen in several ways.
The first is by hand: your hands are full of blood (Isa 1:15). This is not only against charity, which tells us to love our neighbor as ourselves: no murderer has eternal life abiding in himself (1 John 3:15). But also it is against nature, for every animal loves its like (Sir 13:19). And so it is said: he who strikes a man with a will to kill him, shall be put to death (Exod 21:12). He who does this is more cruel than the wolf, of which Aristotle says that one wolf will not eat of the flesh of another wolf. (See Aristotle, History of Animals 9.44, 629b23–26.)
The second is by word of mouth. This is done by giving counsel to anyone against another by provocation, accusation, or detraction: the sons of men whose teeth are weapons and arrows, and their tongue a sharp sword (Ps 57:4 [56:5]).
The third is by lending aid, as it is written: my son, do not go with them (Prov 1:15).
The fourth is by consent: they are worthy of death, not only they who do such things, but they also who consent to those who do them (Rom 1:32). You give consent in a certain way when you could prevent the act and do not do so: deliver those who are led to death (Prov 24:11); and again, if you say, ‘I have not strength enough’ (Prov 24:12).
The fifth is by negligence or avarice. Thus, Ambrose says: give food to him that is dying of hunger; if you do not, you are his murderer. (This quote is not found in Ambrose. See Gratian, Decretum, ed. Emil Friedberg, Corpus Iuris Canonici 1 (Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz, 1879), P. 1, d. 86, c. 21, I.302, and even more in: Ermenegildo Lio, Determinatio superflui in doctrina Alexandri Halensis eiusque Scholae (iuxta fontes praesertim ineditos et autographos) in Antonianum 27 (1952): 349–66, who found this quote in the works of Leo the Great, Sermon 4, ch. 2 (PL 54:491A). However, A. Chavasse in Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum [CCSL] 138 does not consider this sermon authentic. Aquinas reports this authority in In IV Sent. 15.2.1 and in ST II-II.32.5.)
We have already considered the killing of the body, but some kill the soul also by drawing it away from the life of grace, namely by inducing it to commit mortal sin: he was a murderer from the beginning (John 8:44), that is, insofar as he drew men into sin. Others, however, slay both body and soul. This is possible in two ways: first, by the murder of one with child, whereby the child is killed both in body and soul; and, second, by committing suicide.
XXIII. The Fifth Commandment, Continued
You shall not kill (Exod 20:13)**. Christ in the Gospel taught that our justice should be greater than the justice of the old law. (Matthew 5:20.) This means that Christians should observe the commandments of the law more perfectly than the Jews observed them. The reason is that greater effort deserves a greater reward: he who sows sparingly, shall also reap sparingly (2 Cor 9:6).
The old law promised a temporary and earthly reward: if you are willing and will listen to me, you shall eat the good things of the land (Isa 1:19). But in the new law heavenly and eternal things are promised.
Therefore, justice, which is the observance of the commandments, should be more generous because a greater reward is expected.
The Lord mentioned this commandment in particular among the others when he said: you have heard that it was said to them of old: ‘You shall not kill.’ But I say to you that anyone who is angry with his brother, shall be in danger of the judgment (Matt 5:21–22). By this is meant the penalty which the law prescribes: if any man kills his neighbor on set purpose, and by lying in wait for him; you shall take him away from my altar, that he may die (Exod 21:14).
Now, there are five ways to avoid being angry. (Parallel texts: ST I-II.88.5, ad 1; II-II.158.1; III.15.9; In III Sent. 15.2.2, qa. 2; On Evil, q. 7, a. 4, ad 1; q. 12, aa. 1–3; Commentary on Job, ch. 17, lect. 1; Commentary on Ephesians, ch. 4, lect. 8; Commentary on Galatians, ch. 5, lect. 5.) The first is that one be not quickly provoked to anger: let every man be swift to hear, but slow to speak and slow to anger (Jas 1:19). The reason is that anger is a sin, and is punished by God. (See ST II-II.158.2.)
But is all anger contrary to virtue? There are two opinions about this. (See Aquinas, On Evil, q. 12, a. 1; ST II-II.158.1, ad 1.) The Stoics said that the wise man is free from all passions; (See Augustine, City of God, bk. 9, ch. 4 (PL 41:258; CSEL 40:410 and following); Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, bk. 4, cc. 15–17.) even more, they maintained that true virtue consisted in perfect quiet of soul. The Peripatetics, on the other hand, held that the wise man is subject to anger, but in a moderate degree. (See Augustine, City of God, bk. 9, ch. 4 (PL 41:258; CSEL 40:410); Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, bk. 4, cc. 17–18.) This is the more accurate opinion. It is proved first by authority, in that the Gospels show us that these passions were attributed in a certain way to Christ, (See Vulgate, Mark 3:5, John 2:13; Aquinas, In III Sent. 15.2.2, qa. 2; In III Sent. 15.15.9; Compendium theologiae, ch. 232.) in whom was the full fountainhead of wisdom. Then, second, it is proved from reason. If all the passions were opposed to virtue, then there would be some powers of the soul which would be without good purpose; indeed, they would be positively harmful to man, since they would have no acts in keeping with them. Thus, the irascible and concupiscible powers would be given to man to no purpose. It must, therefore, be concluded that sometimes anger is virtuous, and sometimes it is not.
We see this if we consider anger in three different ways. The first is as it exists solely in the judgment of reason, without any perturbation of soul; and this is more properly not anger but judgment. Thus, the Lord punishing the wicked is said to be angry: I will bear the wrath of the Lord because I have sinned against him (Mic 7:9). Second, anger is considered as a passion. (See ST II-II.158.1–2.) This is in the sensitive appetite, and is twofold. Sometimes it is ordered by reason or it is restrained within proper limits by reason, as when one is angry because it is justly fitting to be angry and within proper limits. This is an act of virtue and is called “righteous anger.” (See ST II-II.158.1, ad 2; from Gregory the Great, Morals on the Book of Job, bk. 5, ch. 45 (PL 75:727); Aquinas, On Evil, q. 12, a. 1, ad 4; Commentary on Job, at 17:7, ch. 17, lect. 1, n. 271; Commentary on Ephesians, at 4:26, ch. 4, lect. 8, n. 250.) Thus, the Philosopher says that meekness is in no way opposed to anger. (See Aristotle, Ethics 4.5, 1125b26‒35; see also Aquinas, Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 4, lect. 13, nn. 800–801.) This kind of anger then is not a sin. There is a third kind of anger which overthrows the judgment of reason and is always sinful, sometimes mortally and sometimes venially. And whether it is one or the other will depend on that object to which the anger incites, which is sometimes mortal, sometimes venial. (See ST I-II.88.5, ad 1; II-II.158.2‒3; On Evil, q. 7, a. 4 and ad 1; q. 12.) This may be mortal in two ways: either in its genus or by reason of the circumstances.
For example, murder would seem to be a mortal sin in its genus, because it is directly opposite to a divine commandment. Thus, consent to murder is a mortal sin in its genus, because if the act is a mortal sin, then the consent to the act will be also a mortal sin. Sometimes, however, the act itself is mortal in its genus, but, nevertheless, the impulse is not mortal, because it is without consent. This is the same as if one is moved by the impulse of concupiscence to fornication, and yet does not consent; one does not commit a mortal sin. The same holds true of anger. For anger is really the impulse to avenge an injury which one has suffered.
Now, if this impulse of the passion is so great that reason is weakened, then it is a mortal sin; if, however, reason is not so perverted by the passion as to give its full consent, then it will be a venial sin.
On the other hand, if up to the moment of consent, the reason is not perverted by the passion, and consent is given without this perversion of reason, then there is no mortal sin.
Therefore, whoever is angry with his brother, shall be in danger of the judgment (Matt 5:22), (See above, section 23.) must be understood of that impulse of passion tending to do injury—and this impulse, inasmuch as it is consented to, is a mortal sin. And all things that are done, the Lord will bring into judgment for every error, whether it be good or evil (Eccl 12:14). (See a parallel text in Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, prologue.)
The second reason is because every man loves liberty and hates restraint. (See above, section 23, at et ratio huius.) But he who is filled with anger is not master of himself: who can bear the violence of one provoked? (Prov 27:4). A stone is heavy, and sand weighty, but the anger of a fool is heavier than both (Prov 27:3).
One should also take care that one does not remain angry over long: (See above, section 23, at et primo.) be angry, and sin not (Ps 4:4 [5]). And: let not the sun go down upon your anger (Eph 4:26). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Ephesians, at 4:26, ch. 4, lect. 8, nn. 250–51.) The reason for this is given in the Gospel by our Lord: be at agreement with your adversary, etc. (Matt 5:25).
Third, we should beware lest our anger grow in intensity, having its beginning in the heart, and finally leading on to hatred. For there is this difference between anger and hatred, that anger is sudden, but hatred is long-lived and, thus, is a mortal sin: (See ST I-II.46.6; II-II.158.4; On Evil, q. 12, a. 4.) whoever hates his brother is a murderer (1 John 3:15). And the reason is because he kills both himself (by destroying charity) and another. Thus, Augustine says: let not anger grow into hatred etc. (See Augustine, Epistle 211, para. 14 (PL 33:964; CSEL 57:368); see also Augustine, Regula ad servos Dei, para. 10 (PL 32:1383): lites aut nullas habeatis aut quam celerrime finiatis, ne ira crescat in odium et trabem faciat de festuca et animam faciat homicidam, “have either no disputes or finish them as quickly as possible, lest anger grow into hatred and make a beam from a splinter and make the soul a murderer.”) Again: a passionate man stirs up strife (Prov 15:18). Cursed be their fury, because it was stubborn, and their wrath, because it was cruel (Gen 49:7). We must take care lest our wrath explode in speech: a fool immediately shows his anger (Prov 12:16).
Now, angry words are twofold in effect; either they injure another, or they express one’s own pride in oneself. Our Lord has reference to the first when he said: and whoever says to his brother: ‘You fool’ (Matt 5:22). (See above, section 23.) Moreover: a mild answer breaks wrath, but a harsh word stirs up fury (Prov 15:1). Third, we must beware lest anger provoke us to deeds.
In all our dealings we should observe two things, namely justice and mercy; but anger hinders us in both: for the anger of a man does not work the justice of God (Jas 1:20). For such a one may indeed be willing but his anger prevents him. A certain philosopher once said to a man who had offended him: I would punish you, were I not angry. (See Archytas, according to Aquinas, On Evil, q. 12, a. 1, obj. 15, who reports on Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Words, bk. 4, ch. 1, ext. 1; see also Cicero, Tusculan Disputations*, bk. 4, ch. 36.)* Again: anger has no mercy, nor fury when it breaks forth (Prov 27:4). (See above, section 23.) And: in their fury they slew a man (Gen 49:6). It is for all this that Christ wills us to beware not only of murder but also of anger. The good physician removes the external symptoms of a malady; and, furthermore, he even removes the very root of the illness, so that there will be no relapse. So also the Lord wills us to avoid the beginnings of sins; and anger is thus to be avoided because it is the beginning of murder. (See ST II-II.158.7; On Evil, q. 12, a. 5.)
Chapter 6
XXIV. The Sixth Commandment
You shall not commit adultery (Exod 20:14). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) After the prohibition of murder, adultery is forbidden. (See ST II-II.154.8; Commentary on Matthew, at 19:3–9, ch. 19, lect. 1, nn. 1547–61.) This is fitting, since husband and wife are as one body. They shall be, says the Lord, two in one flesh (Gen 2:24). (See also Ephesians 5:31.) Therefore, after an injury inflicted upon a man in his own person, none is so grave as that which is inflicted upon a person with whom one is joined. (See ST I-II.100.5; II-II.12.6, ad 2; SCG III.128, at the paragraph beginning deinde; Commentary on Romans, at 13:9, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1052.)
Adultery is forbidden both to the wife and the husband.
We shall first consider the adultery of the wife, since in this seems to lie the greater sin, for a wife who commits adultery is guilty of three grave sins, which are implied in the following words: every woman who leaves her husband is, first, unfaithful to the law of the Most High; second, she has betrayed her husband; third, she has fornicated in adultery, and has gotten her children of another man (Sir 23:32–33). (Parallel texts: ST II-II.154.2; In IV Sent. 33.1.3, qa. 2; SCG III.122; On Evil, q. 15, a. 2, ad 11 and following; Quodlibet III, q. 5, a. 2; Quodlibet VIII, q. 6, a. 5.)
First, therefore, she has sinned by lack of faith, since she is unfaithful to the law; for the Lord has forbidden adultery.
Moreover, she has spurned the ordinance of God: what therefore God has joined together, let no man put asunder (Matt 19:6).
And also she has sinned against the institution of the Church or the sacrament. Because marriage is contracted before the eyes of the Church, and thereupon God is called, as it were, to witness a bond of fidelity which must be kept: the Lord God has been witness between you and the wife of your youth (Mal 2:14).
Therefore, she has sinned against the law, against the institution of the Church, and against a sacrament of God.
Second, she sins by infidelity because she has betrayed her husband (Sir 23:33): (See above, section 24.) the wife does not have power over her own body (1 Cor 7:4). (Parallel texts: ST II-II.154.1 and 8; In IV Sent. 41.4, qa. 1, 2; On Evil, q. 15, a. 3.) In fact, without the consent of the husband she cannot observe chastity. If adultery is committed, then, an act of treachery is perpetrated in that the wife gives herself to another, just as if a servant gave himself to another master: she forsakes the guide of her youth (Prov 2:17).
Third, she commits the sin of theft because she has gotten her children of another man (Sir 23:33); (See above, section 24.) and this is a most grave theft in that she gives their inheritance to other children. Let it be noted that such a one should encourage her children to enter religion, or upon such a walk of life that they do not succeed in the property of her husband. Therefore, an adulteress is guilty of sacrilege, treachery, and theft.
Husbands, however, do not sin any less than wives, although they sometimes may flatter themselves to the contrary. (See Gratian, Decretum, P. 2, C. 32, q. 4, c. 4, 1:1128; from Ambrose, On Abraham, bk. 1, ch. 4 (PL 14:431): nemo sibi blandiatur de legibus hominum. Omne stuprum adulterium est, nec viro licet quod mulieri non licet; “let nobody delude himself about the laws of men. Every illicit intercourse is adultery, nor is anything permitted for the man that is not permitted for the woman.”) This is clear for three reasons.
First, because of the equality which holds between husband and wife, for the husband also does not have power over his own body (1 Cor 7:4). Therefore, as far as the rights of matrimony are concerned, one cannot act without the consent of the other. As an indication of this, God did not form woman from the foot or from the head, but from the rib of the man. (See Genesis 2:21 and following.) Now, marriage was at no time a perfect state until the law of Christ came, because the Jew could have many wives, but a wife could not have many husbands; hence, equality did not exist.
The second reason is because strength is a special quality of the man, while the passion proper to the woman is concupiscence: (See ST II-II.149.4; Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 11:3, ch. 11, lect. 1, n. 590.) giving honor to the female as to the weaker vessel (1 Pet 3:7). Therefore, if you ask from your wife what you do not keep yourself, then you are unfaithful.
The third reason is from the authority of the husband. For the husband is head of the wife (1 Cor 11:3); hence women should not speak in the church, but should ask their husbands at home (1 Cor 14:34–35). The husband is the teacher of his wife, and God, therefore, gave the commandment to the husband. Now, a priest sins more than a layman, and a bishop more than a priest, if he does not practice what he preaches, because it is incumbent upon them to teach others. In like manner, the husband that commits adultery breaks faith by not practicing what he preaches. Yet wives should attend to what Christ says: do what they say, not according to their works (Matt 23:3).
XXV. The Sixth Commandment, Continued
You shall not commit adultery (Exod 20:14). As has been said, (See above, section 24.) God forbids adultery both to men and women. Now, it must be known that, although some believe that adultery is a sin, (See Rabbi Moses, according to Giles of Rome, De erroribus philosophorum, ed. P. Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant 2 (Louvain, 1908), n. 12, pp. 23–24; ed. J. Koch, (Milwaukee, 1944), ch. 12, para. 11, p. 64.) yet they do not believe that simple fornication is a mortal sin. Against them stand the words of the Apostle: God will judge fornicators and adulterers (Heb 13:4). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Hebrews, at 13:4, ch. 13, lect. 1, n. 733.) And fornicators shall not possess the kingdom of God (1 Cor 6:9). (See also Ephesians 5:5.) But one is not excluded from the kingdom of God except by mortal sin; therefore, fornication is a mortal sin. (See Aquinas, In IV Sent. 33.1.3, qa. 2; ST II-II.154.2; SCG III.122; On Evil, q. 15, aa. 2–3; Quodlibet VIII, q. 6, a. 5.) But one might say that there is no reason why fornication should be a mortal sin, since the body of a wife or of a husband is not given over, as in adultery; but it should be known that although the body of a wife is not given over, nevertheless there is given over the body of Christ which was given and consecrated to him in baptism. (See ST II-II.154.3, ad 3.) If, then, one must not betray his wife, with much more reason must he not be unfaithful to Christ: shall I then take the members of Christ and make them the members of a harlot? God forbid! (1 Cor 6:15). (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Corinthians, at 6:15, ch. 6, lect. 3, n. 302.) Therefore, it is heretical to say that fornication is not a mortal sin. (See Innocent IV, Letter “Sub catholicae professione,” March 6, 1254; Aquinas, Quodlibet III, q. 5, a. 2.) And, therefore, it must be known that the commandment, you shall not commit adultery, not only forbids adultery but also every form of immodesty and impurity.
There are some who say that intercourse between married persons is not devoid of sin. (Tatian or the Encratites, according to Augustine, On Heresies, ch. 25 (PL 42:30; CCSL 46:301); see also Peter Lombard, Sentences, bk. 4, d. 26, ch. 5 (PL 192:909); Aquinas, In IV Sent. 26.1.3.) But this is heretical, for the Apostle says: let marriage be honorable in all and the bed undefiled (Heb 13:4). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Hebrews, at 13:4, ch. 13, lect. 1, n. 732.) Not only is it devoid of sin, but for those having charity it is meritorious for eternal life. (See Aquinas, On Evil, q. 2, a. 5, ad 7.) Sometimes, however, it may be a venial sin, sometimes a mortal sin. When it is had with the intention of bringing forth offspring, then it is meritorious. When it is had only with the intent of rendering mutual comfort, it is an act of justice and of virtue. When it is only a cause of exciting lust, although within the limits of marriage, it is a venial sin or with a venial sin; and when it goes beyond these limits, so as to intend intercourse with another if possible, it would be a mortal sin.
Adultery and fornication are forbidden for a number of reasons. This is, first of all, because they destroy the soul: he who is an adulterer has no sense, for the folly of his heart shall destroy his own soul (Prov 6:32). It says: for the folly of his heart, which is whenever the flesh dominates the spirit.
Second, they deprive one of life; for one guilty of such should be stoned according to the law. (See John 8:5; Leviticus 20:10; Deuteronomy 22:22–24.) Sometimes the guilty one is not punished now bodily, which is to his disadvantage since punishment of the body may be borne with patience and is conducive to the remission of sins; but, nevertheless, he shall be punished in the future life.
Third, these sins consume one’s substance, just as happened to the prodigal son in that he consumed his substance living riotously (Luke 15:13). Do not give your soul to harlots, lest you destroy your inheritance (Sir 9:6).
Fourth, they defile the offspring: the children of adulterers shall not come to perfection, etc. (Wis 3:16). And again: otherwise your children should be unclean; but now they are holy (1 Cor 7:14). Thus, they are never honored in the Church, but if they are clerics their dishonor may go without shame.
Fifth, these sins take away one’s honor, and this especially is applicable to women: every woman who is a harlot shall be trodden upon as dung in the way (Sir 9:10). And of the husband it is said: he gathers to himself shame and dishonor, etc. (Prov 6:33). Gregory also says that sins of the flesh are more shameful and less blameful, (Gregory the Great, Morals on the Book of Job, bk. 33, ch. 12, para. 25 (PL 76:688BC).) and the reason is because they are common to the beasts: man when he was in honor did not understand; and became like senseless beasts that perish (Ps 49:20 [48:21]).
Chapter 7
XXVI. The Seventh Commandment
You shall not steal (Exod 20:15). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) The Lord principally forbids injury to our neighbor in his law.
Thus, first, you shall not kill forbids us to injure our neighbor in his own person;
second, you shall not commit adultery forbids injury to the person to whom one is bound in marriage;
third, **you shall not steal, forbids us to injure our neighbor in his goods. (See ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6, ad 2; Commentary on Romans, at 13:9, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1053.)
This commandment forbids any worldly goods whatsoever to be taken away wrongfully. Theft is committed in a number of ways. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.66.6; In II Sent. 42.1.4; On Evil, q. 10, a. 2; q. 15, a. 2.)
The first is by taking stealthily: (See ST II-II.66.3: propria ratio furti est ut sit occulta acceptio rei alienae, “the proper nature of theft is that it is the furtive taking of a thing that belongs to someone else”; see also q. 66, a. 1; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 5, lect. 4, n. 930.) if the father of the house knew at what hour the thief would come etc. (Matt 24:43). This is an act wholly blameworthy because it is a form of treachery. Reproach is upon the thief (Sir 5:17).
The second is by taking with violence, (See ST II-II.66.4; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 5, lect. 4, n. 930.) and this is an even greater injury: they have violently robbed the fatherless (Job 24:9). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Job, at 24:9, ch. 24, lect. 1, nn. 346–48.) Among those that do such things are wicked kings and rulers: her princes in the midst of her, are like wolves ravening the prey (Ezek 22:27). They act contrary to the Lord’s will who wishes a rule according to justice: by me kings reign and lawgivers decree just things (Prov 8:15). Sometimes they do such things stealthily and sometimes with violence: your princes are faithless companions of thieves (Isa 1:23). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Isaiah, at 1:23, ch. 1, lect. 5, n. 59.) At times they steal by enacting laws and enforcing them for profit only: woe to those who make wicked laws (Isa 10:1). And Augustine says that every wrongful usurpation is theft when he asks: what are thrones but forms of thievery? (Augustine, City of God, bk. 4, ch. 4 (PL 41:115; CSEL 40:116): remota itaque iustitia, quid sunt regna nisi magna latrocinia? Quia et latrocinia quid sunt, nisi parva regna?; “remove justice, then, and what are kingdoms but large gangs of robbers? And what are gangs of robbers but small kingdoms?”; see also ST II-II.66.8, ad 3.)
Third, theft is committed by not paying wages that are due: the wages of him whom you have hired shall not abide by you until the morning (Lev 19:13). This means that a man must pay every one his due, (See ST I-II.144.1: merces dicitur quod alicui recompensatur pro retributione operis vel laboris, quasi quoddam pretium ipsius. Unde . . . recompensare mercem operis vel laboris, est actus iustitiae; “what is called a reward or wage is paid to someone in compensation for his work or labor as a certain fee for it. Hence . . . it is an act of justice to pay a reward or wage in compensation for work or labor.”) whether he be prince, or prelate, or cleric, etc.: render therefore to all men their dues. Tribute, to whom tribute is due, custom, to whom custom is due (Rom 13:7). Hence, we are bound to give a return to rulers who guard our safety. (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 13:6–7, ch. 13, lect. 1, nn. 1038–43.)
The fourth kind of theft is fraud in buying and selling: (See ST II-II.77.2.) you shall not have diverse measures or weights (Deut 25:13). Diverse weights and diverse measures, both are abominable before God (Prov 20:10). This is also directed against the keepers of wine-shops who mix water with the wine. Usury is also forbidden: Lord, who shall dwell in your tabernacle, etc. (Ps 15 [14]:1). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.105.3, ad 3; II-II.78.1; In III Sent. 37.6; On Evil, q. 13, a. 4; Quodlibet III, q. 7, a. 2; Commentary on Politics, bk. 1, lect. 8; he who has not put out his money to usury, nor taken bribes against the innocent (Ps 14:5).) This is also against money-changers who speak and commit many frauds, and against the sellers of cloth and other goods. But you may object: why can I not give money, just like a horse or a house? To this it must be said that in money the sin is that an item is sold twice. In a house there are two items: the substance and the use. It is one thing to have a house, and another to use the house. So I can sell separately the use of a house without selling the house itself. The same for such like. But for things that consist in the use alone, and the use alienates the item, the same distinction cannot be made as with a house. We use money by alienating it, and food by consuming it. Therefore if you sell the use, you are selling twice. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 37.1.6; ST II-II.78.1; On Evil*, q. 13, a. 4; Quodlibet III, q. 7, a. 2; Bonaventure, Collations on the Ten Commandments, coll. 6, para. 19, 5:528; Albert the Great, Commentary on the Sentences, bk. 3, d. 37, a. 13, ad 9, 28:708.)*
Fifth, theft is committed by those who buy promotions to positions of temporal or spiritual honor. (See ST II-II.100.1.) The riches which he swallowed, he shall vomit up (Job 20:15), has reference to temporal position. Thus, all tyrants who hold a kingdom or province or land by force are thieves, and are held to restitution. Concerning spiritual dignities: he who does not enter by the door into the sheepfold but climbs up another way is a thief and a robber (John 10:1). (See Aquinas, Commentary on John, at 10:1, ch. 10, lect. 1, n. 1368: mali vero pastores non intrant per ostium, sed per ambitionem, et potentiam saecularem, et simoniam; et isti sunt fures et latrones, “evil shepherds do not enter by the door, but by ambition and secular power and simony; and these are thieves and robbers.”) Therefore, they who commit simony are thieves.
XXVII. XXVI. The Seventh Commandment, Continued
You shall not steal (Exod 20:15)**. This commandment, as has been said, (See above, section 26.) forbids taking things wrongfully, and we can bring forth many reasons why it is given.
The first is because of the gravity of this sin, (See ST II-II.66.5–6.) which is likened to murder: the bread of the needy is the life of the poor; he who defrauds them of it is a man of blood (Sir 34:25). And again: he who sheds blood and he who defrauds the laborer of his hire are brothers (Sir 24:27).
The second reason is the peculiar danger involved in theft. For no sin is so dangerous since no sin can be forgiven without penance and satisfaction. After committing other sins a person may quickly repent, for instance, of murder when his anger cools, or of fornication when his passion subsides, and so on for others; but even if one repents of this sin, one does not easily make the necessary satisfaction for it. This is owing to the obligation of restitution and the duty to make up for what loss is incurred by the rightful owner. And all this is above and beyond the obligation to repent for the sin itself: woe to him who heaps together what is not his own; for how long will he load himself with thick clay? (Hab 2:6). For thick clay is that from which one cannot easily extricate himself. (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Timothy, at 6:9, ch. 6, lect. 2, n. 248: divitiae alliciunt, et inducunt ad aliqua peccata. . . . Et laqueos involvunt, quia divitiae non habentibus ad tentationem, habentibus ad laquem, quia non libenter reddunt eas quas auferunt, “riches are alluring and draw one into other sins. . . . They catch you in a snare, for to those without them riches are a temptation, but to those with them they are a snare; because they do not gladly give up goods they took from others.”)
The third reason is the uselessness of stolen goods. (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Timothy, at 6:9, ch. 6, lect. 2, n. 249; see also below, section 30.) For they are not useful spiritually: treasures of wickedness shall profit nothing (Prov 10:2); wealth can indeed be useful spiritually for almsgiving and offering of sacrifices: the ransom of a man’s life are his riches (Prov 13:8). But it is said of stolen goods: I am the Lord that love judgment, and hate robbery in a holocaust (Isa 41:8). And again: he who offers sacrifice of the goods of the poor is as one who sacrifices the son in the presence of his father (Sir 34:24). Nor are stolen goods useful temporally, for they last only a little while: woe to him who gathers an evil greed to his house (Hab 2:9), who heaps together riches by usury and loan (Prov 28:8), the substance of the sinner is kept for the just (Prov 13:22).
The fourth reason is that the results of theft are peculiarly harmful to the thief in that they lead to his loss of other goods. (See above, section 27.) It is not unlike the mixture of fire and straw: fire shall devour the tabernacles of those who love to take bribes (Job 15:34). And it ought to be known that a thief may lose not only his own soul, but also the souls of his children, since they are bound to make restitution.
Chapter 8
XXVIII. The Eighth Commandment
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor (Exod 20:16). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.) The Lord has forbidden anyone to injure his neighbor by deed; (See above, sections 21–27.) now he forbids us to injure him by word: you shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
This may occur in two ways, (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 13:9, ch. 13, lect. 2, n. 1054; ST II-II.67, prologue.) either in a court of justice or in ordinary conversation. In the court of justice it may happen in three ways, according to the three persons who may violate this commandment. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.110.2; In III Sent. 38.2 and 5; Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 5.)
The first person is the plaintiff who makes a false accusation: (See ST II-II.68.) you shall not be a detractor nor a whisperer among the people (Lev 19:16). And note well that it is not only wrong to speak falsely, but also to conceal the truth: if your brother offends you, go and rebuke him (Matt 18:15).
The second person is the witness who testifies by lying: (See ST II-II.70.4.) a false witness shall not be unpunished (Prov 19:5). (Parallel texts: ST II-II.70.4; 110.4; In III Sent. 38.4; Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 5.) For this sin includes all the preceding ones, inasmuch as the false witness may himself be the murderer or the thief, etc. And such should be punished according to the punishment given in Deuteronomy. (When after most diligent inquisition, they shall find that the false witness hath told a lie against his brother, they shall render to him as he meant to do to his brother. You shall not pity him, but shall require life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot (Deut 19:18–21).) And again: a man who bears false witness against his neighbor is like a dart and a sword and a sharp arrow (Prov 25:18).
The third person is the judge who sins by giving an unjust sentence: (See ST II-II.60.2; q. 67.) you shall not judge unjustly, nor respect the person of the mighty (Lev 19:15).
In ordinary conversation there are five kinds of men who sometimes sin against this commandment.
The first is detractors: detractors, hateful to God (Rom 1:30). (See ST II-II.73.2; Commentary on Romans, at 1:29, ch. 1, lect. 8, n. 162.) And it says hateful to God because nothing is so dear to a man as his good name: a good name is better than precious ointments (Eccl 7:2). But detractors take away this good name: if a serpent bite in silence, he is no better that backbites secretly (Eccl 10:11). Therefore, if detractors do not restore this reputation, they cannot be saved.
The second is those who listen to detractors willingly: (See ST II-II.73.4; Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 14, n. 105.) hedge in your ears with thorns (Sir 28:28). One ought to turn away, showing a stern countenance: the north wind drives away rain as a stern countenance a backbiting tongue (Prov 25:23).
The third is gossipers who repeat whatever they hear: six things there are which the Lord hates, etc. and one who sows discord among brethren (Prov 6:16, 19). (See ST II-II.74.1; Commentary on Romans, at 1:29, ch. 1, lect. 8, n. 162.) The whisperer and the double tongued is accursed among the people (Sir 28:15).
The fourth is flatterers: the sinner is praised in the desires of his soul (Ps 10:3). (See ST II-II.115.1; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 2, lect. 9, n. 354; bk. 4, lect. 14, nn. 828–29.) O my people, they who call you blessed deceive you (Isa 3:12). The just one will correct me, etc., the oil of the sinner will not anoint my head (Ps 142:4 [141:5]).
The fifth is complainers, (See Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, at 20:11, ch. 20, lect. 1, n. 1641; Commentary on John, at 6:41–43, ch. 6, lect. 5, nn. 930–32.) and this is very common among subjects: *do not murmur (*1 Cor 10:10); *guard yourselves from complaining (*Wis 1:11); the prince is softened by patience (Prov 25:15).
XXIX. The Eighth Commandment, Continued
Do not speak false witness against your neighbor (Exod 20:16)**. (See above, section 28.) The prohibition of this commandment includes every form of falsehood: refuse to utter any lie; for the habit of lying serves no good (Sir 7:14). There are four reasons for this.
The first is that lying likens one to the devil, because a liar is as the son of the devil. Now, we know that a man’s speech betrays from what region and country he comes from, thus: even your accent betrays you (Matt 26:73). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, at 26:73, ch. 26, lect. 7, n. 2296: in eadem lingua saepe diversa locutio fit, sicut patet in Francia, et Picardia, et Burgundia, et tamen una loquela est. Sic Galilaei aliquam differentiam habebant a Ierosolymitanis. Sic et cuilibet potest dici: Nam et loquela tua manifestum te facit; quia, ut dicitur Luc. 6:45, ex abundantia cordis os loquitur; quia cum homo est carnalis, cito prorumpit in verba carnalia; cum spiritualis in verba spiritualia, “different phrases often occur in the same language, as is clear in France, and Picardy, and Burgundy, and yet there is one speech. In the same way, the Galileans had some things different from the Jerusalemites. So also it can be said to any man: ‘for even your speech discovers you’; for, as is said, ‘for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks’ (Luke 6:45), for when a man is carnal, he quickly breaks into carnal words; when he is spiritual, into spiritual words.”) Even so, some men are of the devil’s kind, and are called sons of the devil because they are liars, since the devil is a liar and the father of lies (John 8:44). Thus, the devil lied when he said, no, certainly you shall not die (Gen 3:4). But, on the contrary, those who speak the truth are children of God, because God is truth (John 14:6). (See Aquinas, Commentary on John, at 8:44, ch. 8, lect. 6, nn. 1251–52; at 14:6, ch. 14, lect. 2, n. 1868.)
The second reason is that lying induces the ruin of society. Men naturally live together in society, and this is soon rendered impossible if they do not speak the truth to one another. Putting away every weight (Heb 12:1) (See also Ephesians 4:25, 1 Peter 2:1.) of falsehood to speak the truth.
The third reason is that the liar loses his reputation. He who is accustomed to telling lies is not believed even when he speaks the truth: what can be made clean by the unclean? And what truth can come from what is false? (Sir 34:4).
The fourth reason is because a liar kills his soul, for the mouth that lies kills the soul (Wis 1:11). (See above, section 28.) And again: you will destroy all who speak lies (Ps 5:6 [7]). Accordingly, it is clear that this is a mortal sin.
Some lies are mortal, others are venial. It is a mortal sin, for instance, to lie in matters of faith. This concerns prelates, and teachers, and preachers, and is the gravest of all other kinds of lies: there shall be among you lying teachers, who shall bring in sects of perdition (2 Pet 2:1). And certain ones say such things sometimes that they may seem to know: upon whom have you jested, you wicked children (Isa 57:4).
Then there are those who lie to wrong their neighbor: devise not a lie against your brother (Sir 7:13).
These two kinds of lies, therefore, are mortal sins. (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 38.3–4; ST II-II.110.3–4.)
There are also some who lie for their own advantage, and this in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is out of humility in confession, about which Augustine says: just as one must avoid concealing what he has committed, so also he must not mention what he has not committed. (Augustine, Sermon 181, ch. 4, para. 5 (PL 38:981); Peter Lombard, Sentences, bk. 4, d. 21, ch. 8 (ed. Quaracchi, 1981, bk. 2, n. 123, p. 384; PL 192:897).) And again: does God have any need of your lie? (Job 13:7). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Job, at 13:7, ch. 13, lect. 1, nn. 222–23.) He humbles himself badly.
There are others who tell lies out of shame, namely when one tells a falsehood believing that he is telling the truth, and on becoming aware of it he is ashamed to retract: in no wise speak against the truth, but be ashamed of the lie of your ignorance (Sir 4:30).
Others lie for desired results as when they wish to gain or avoid something: we have placed our hope in lies, and by falsehood we are protected (Isa 28:15). And again: he who trusts in lies feeds the winds (Prov 10:4).
Finally, there are some who lie to benefit another, that is, when they wish to free someone from death, or danger, or some other loss. This must be avoided, as Augustine says. (Augustine, On Lying, bk. 12, para. 20 (PL 40:502; CSEL 41:439).) Accept no person against your own person, nor against your soul a lie (Eccl 4:26).
But others lie only out of vanity, (See Aquinas, In III Sent. 38.1.2; ST II-II.110.2; Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 5, n. 28.) and this, too, must never be done, lest the habit of such lead us to mortal sin: for the bewitching of vanity obscures good things (Wis 4:12).
Chapter 9
XXX. The Ninth Commandment
You shall not covet your neighbor’s goods (Exod 20:17). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2. St. Thomas places the tenth commandment before the ninth. The tenth commandment is wider in extension than the ninth, which is specific.) There is this difference between the divine law and human or worldly laws, that worldly laws judge only deeds and words, whereas the divine law judges not only these but also thoughts. (See ST I-II.100.9, resp.) The reason is because human laws are made by men who see things only exteriorly, but the divine law is from God, who sees both external things and the very interior of men: (See ST I-II.91.4, resp.) you are the God of my heart (Ps 73 [72]:26). And again: men see those things that appear, but God sees the heart (1 Sam 16:7). Therefore, having considered those commandments which concern words and deeds, (See above, sections 21–29.) it remains now to be said concerning thoughts: you shall not covet, etc. For with God the intention is taken for the deed, (See below, section 31; SCG III.144, paragraph beginning “praeterea”; In IV Sent. 17.3.5, qa. 2, obj. 2 and ad 2; see Peter Lombard, Sentences, bk. 4, d. 17, ch. 1 (ed. Quaracchi, bk. 2, p. 343; PL 192:880): votum enim pro operatione iudicatur, “for the wish is judged instead of the work,” from Cassidorus, On Psalm 31:7, n. 5 (PL 70:220; CCSL 97:278): sic iudicat [Deus] pium votum quemadmodum operationis effectum, “so [God] judges the pious wish just as the effect of the work.” See also Aquinas, In IV Sent. 4.3.3, qa. 2; In IV Sent. 20.1.5, qa. 3, obj. 1; In III Sent. 68.2, ad 3; see Augustine, Expositions on the Psalms, on Psalm 67:3, sermon 1, para. 4: quidquid vis et non potes, factum Deus computat, “whatever you desire and cannot do, God counts as done” (PL 36:677).) and thus you shall not covet is as much as to say: not only shall you not take, but neither even shall you desire to take your neighbor’s goods**. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.118.1; Commentary on Hebrews, ch. 13, lect. 1; Commentary on the Ethics, bk. 5, lect. 5.) There are a number of reasons for this.
The first reason for the commandment is that man’s desire has no limits, (See ST I-II.30.4.) because desire itself is boundless. But he who is wise will aim at some particular end, for no one should have aimless desires: (See ST II-II.118.1.) a covetous man shall not be satisfied with money (Eccl 5:9). Woe to you that join house to house (Isa 5:8). But the desires of man are never satisfied, because the heart of man is made for receiving God. Nothing, therefore, less than God can satisfy the human heart: he satisfies your desire with good things (Ps 103 [102]:5).
The second reason is that covetousness destroys peace, (See ST II-II.118.8.) which is indeed highly delightful. The covetous man is ever solicitous to acquire what he lacks, and to hold that which he has: the fullness of the rich will not suffer him to sleep (Eccl 5:11). For where your treasure is, there is your heart also (Matt 6:21). And for this reason Christ compared riches to thorns. (See Matthew 13:22.)
The third reason is that covetousness in a man of wealth renders his riches useless (See above, section 27.) both to himself and to others, because he desires only to hold on to them: riches are not fitting for a covetous and stingy man (Sir 14:3).
The fourth reason is that it destroys the equality of justice: neither shall you take bribes, which blind the eyes of the wise (Exod 23:8). And again: he who loves gold shall not be justified (Sir 31:5).
The fifth reason is that it poisons the love of neighbor, for according to Augustine the more one loves, the less one covets, and also the more one covets, the less one loves. (Augustine, Eighty-Three Questions, q. 36, para. 1 (PL 40:25; CCSL 44A:54): caritatis autem venenum est spes adipiscendorum aut retinendorum temporalium; nutrimentum eius est imminutio cupiditatis; perfectio nulla cupiditas; “but what poisons charity is the hope of acquiring and keeping temporal things. What fosters it is the decrease of greed; its perfection is no greed”; according to Aquinas, ST II-II.118.5. obj. 2 and ad 2. See also Augustine, On Christian Doctrine bk. 3, ch. 10, para. 16 (PL 34:72; CCSL 32:88): quanto enim magis regnum cupiditatis destruitur, tanto caritatis augetur, “for the more the kingdom of cupidity is destroyed, the more the kingdom of charity is enlarged”; Expositions on the Psalms, on Psalm 118, sermon 27, para. 6 (PL 37:1582; CCSL 40:1759); Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Charity, ch. 31, para. 117; ch. 32, para. 121 (PL 40:287; 288; CCSL 46:112; 114).) Nor despise your dear brother for the sake of gold (Sir 7:20). And it destroys the love of God, for just as no man can serve two masters, (See Matthew 6:24.) so neither can he serve God and mammon. (Matthew 6:24.)
The sixth reason is that covetousness produces all kinds of wickedness, for it is the root of all evil, according to the Apostle (1 Tim 6:10). And when this root is implanted in the heart it brings forth murder and theft and all kinds of evil. And, therefore, the Apostle says to Timothy: they that will become rich, fall into temptation, etc. (1 Tim 6:9). (See Aquinas, Commentary on 1 Timothy, at 6:9, ch. 6, lect. 1, nn. 247–49; above, section 27.) And it should be noted that covetousness is a mortal sin when one covets one’s neighbor’s goods without reason; and even if there be a reason, it is a venial sin. (Parallel texts: ST II-II.118.4; On Evil, q. 13, a. 2. See ST II-II.118.4.)
Chapter 10
XXXI. The Tenth Commandment
You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife (Exod 20:17). (See above, sect. 30.) St. John says in his first Epistle that all that is in the world is the concupiscence of the flesh, the concupiscence of the eyes, and the pride of life (1 John 2:16). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.100.5; II-II.122.6, ad 3; In III Sent. 37.2, qa. 2.)
Now, all that is desirable is included in these three, (See ST I-II.77.5; In II Sent. 42.2.1.) two of which are forbidden by the precept: you shall not covet your neighbor’s house (Exod 20:17). (See above, sect. 30.) For by house is understood both height, which refers to pride, and width, which refers to avarice: glory and wealth shall be in his house (Ps 112 [111]:3). This means that he who desires the house, desires honors and riches. And thus, after the precept forbidding desire for the house of one’s neighbor comes the commandment prohibiting concupiscence of the flesh: you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife**.
Because of the corruption which resulted from the fall, (See Aquinas, In II Sent. 33.1.1; ST I-II.81.2; I-II.85.3; SCG IV.52; Commentary on Romans, at 5:12, ch. 5, lect. 3, nn. 406–20.) none has been free from concupiscence except Christ and the glorious Virgin. (Parallel texts: ST I-II.77.5; III.15.2; III.27.3, ad 1; Compendium theologiae, ch. 224; In II Sent. 42.2.1.) And wherever there is concupiscence, there is either venial or mortal sin, whenever it is allowed to dominate the reason. Hence, the Apostle says, do not let sin reign in your mortal body (Rom 6:12). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 6:12, ch. 6, lect. 3, n. 493.) And he did not say “let sin not be”; for as the Apostle himself says: I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my flesh (Rom 7:18). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 7:18, ch. 7, lect. 3, n. 573.)
First of all, sin rules in the flesh when, by giving consent to it, concupiscence reigns in the heart: therefore, do not let sin reign, namely so as to obey the lusts thereof (Rom 6:12). (Parallel texts: ST I-II.85.3; On Evil, q. 2, a. 11.) Whoever looks on a woman to lust after her, has already committed adultery with her in his heart (Matt 5:28). For with God the intention is taken for the act. (See above, sect. 30.) Second, sin rules in the flesh when the concupiscence of our heart is expressed in words: out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks (Matt 12:34). (See also Luke 6:45.) Let no evil speech proceed from your mouth (Eph 4:29). (See Aquinas, Commentary on Ephesians, at 4:29, ch. 4, lect. 9, n. 259.) Therefore, one is not without sin who composes frivolous songs. Even the philosophers so thought, (See Augustine, City of God, bk. 2, ch. 14 (PL 41:58; CSEL 40:77); bk. 8, ch. 13 (PL 41:237; CSEL 40:375); see also Plato, The Laws, bk. 7, 801c–d; Republic, bk. 3, 398a, b.) and poets who wrote amatory verses were sent into exile. Third, sin rules in the flesh when at the behest of desire the members are made to serve iniquity: as you have yielded your members to serve uncleanness to greater and greater iniquity (Rom 6:19). These, therefore, are the three steps of concupiscence. (See Aquinas, Commentary on Romans, at 6:12, ch. 6, lect. 3.)
We must realize that the avoidance of concupiscence demands much labor, for it is based on something within us. It is as hard as trying to capture an enemy in one’s own household. However, this desire can be overcome in four ways.
The first way is by fleeing the external occasions, such as, for instance, bad company and everything that may be an occasion for this sin: do not look around you in the ways of the city etc. Turn away your face from a woman dressed up, etc. (Sir 9:7–8). Can a man hide fire in his bosom and his garments not burn? (Prov 6:27). And thus, Lot was commanded to flee from all the country about (Gen 19:17).
The second way is by not giving an opening to thoughts which of themselves are the occasion of lustful desires. And this must be done by mortification of the flesh: I chastise my body, and bring it into subjection (1 Cor 9:27).
The third way is perseverance in prayer: (See Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 12, around the end.) unless the Lord build the house, they labor in vain who build it (Ps 127 [126]:1). I knew that I could not otherwise be continent, except God gave it (Wis 8:21). This kind of demon is not cast out save by prayer and fasting (Matt 17:20). All this is not unlike to a fight between two persons, one of whom you desire to win, the other to lose. You must sustain the one and withdraw all support from the other. So also between the spirit and the flesh there is a continual combat. Now, if you wish the spirit to win, you must assist it by prayer, and likewise you must resist the flesh by such means as fasting; for by fasting the flesh is weakened. (See Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew, at 17:20, ch. 17, lect. 2, n. 1472.)
The fourth way is to keep oneself busy with wholesome occupations: (See Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 12, around the end.) idleness has taught much evil (Sir 33:29). This was the iniquity of Sodom your sister, pride, fullness of bread, and abundance, and the idleness of her (Ezek 16:49). Jerome: always do something good. (See Jerome, Epistle 125, “Ad Rusticum,” para. 11 (PL 22:1078; CSEL 56:130); see also above, sect. 16.) And the poet [Ovid] says: if you give up your quiet life, the bow of cupid will lose its power. (See Ovid, The Remedy of Love: otia si tolles, periere Cupidinis arcus.) Now, study of the Scriptures is the best of all occupations, (See Aquinas, Commentary on the Psalms, at Psalm 17, n. 133: valet valde ad operandum bona et evitanda mala cogitare divina iudicia, “thinking about the divine justice is very useful for doing good and avoiding evil.”) as Jerome tells us: love to study the Scriptures and you will not love the pleasures of the flesh. (See Jerome, Epistle 125, “Ad Rusticum,” para. 11 (PL 22:1078; CSEL 56:130): ama scientiam scripturarum et carnis vitia non amabis.) Pierce my flesh with your fear (Ps 118 [119]:120).
These are the ten precepts to which our Lord referred when he said: if you would enter into life, keep the commandments (Matt 19:17).
There are two main principles of all the commandments, namely love of God and love of neighbor.
The man that loves God must necessarily do three things:
he must have no other God, and with regard to this it says: you shall not have strange gods**;
second, he must give God all honor, and with regard to this it says: you shall not take the name of God in vain**;
third, he must freely take his rest in God, and with regard to this it says: remember that you keep holy the Sabbath day**.
In order to love one’s neighbor, one must first of all honor him, and hence it says: **honor your father and mother.
Second, one must avoid doing harm to one’s neighbor: whether in deed, and hence it says: you shall not kill**, which refers to our neighbor’s person;
**you shall not commit adultery, which refers to the person united to him;
you shall not steal, which refers to his external goods;
or likewise in word, and with regard to this it says: you shall not bear false witness**;
or likewise in thought, and with regard to this it says: you shall not covet your neighbor’s goods**,
and you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife**.
Here ends the precepts.
Chapter 25 of 25