Lecture 18 — The first difficulty, concerning the number of motions of the stars, is solved. The number shown to agree with modern astronomers

324 We may object that we have been thinking of the stars as mere bodies, and as units with a serial order indeed but entirely inanimate; but should rather conceive them as enjoying life and action. On this view the facts cease to appear surprising.

325 For it is natural that the best-conditioned of all things should have its good without action, that which is nearest to it should achieve it by little and simple action, and that which is farther removed by a complexity of actions,

326 just as with men's bodies one is in good condition without exercise at all, another after a short walk, while another requires running and wrestling and hard training,

327 and there are yet others who however hard they worked themselves could never secure this good, but only some substitute for it.

328 To succeed often or in many things is difficult.

329 For instance, to throw ten thousand Coan throws with the dice would be impossible, but to throw one or two is comparatively easy.

330 In action, again, when A has to be done to get B, B to get C, and C to get D, one step or two present little difficulty, but as the series extends the difficulty grows.

331 We must, then, think of the action of the lower stars as similar to that of animals and plants. For on our earth it is man that has the greatest variety of actions—for there are many goods that man can secure; hence his actions are various and directed to ends beyond them—while the perfectly conditioned has no need of action, since it is itself the end, and action always requires two terms, end and means. The lower animals have less variety of action than man; and plants perhaps have little action and of one kind only. For either they have but one attainable good (as indeed man has), or, if several, each contributes directly to their ultimate good.

332 One thing then has and enjoys the ultimate good, other things attain to it, one immediately by few steps, another by many, while yet another does not even attempt to secure it but is satisfied to reach a point not far removed from that consummation. Thus, taking health as the end, there will be one thing that always possesses health, others that attain it, one by reducing flesh, another by running and thus reducing flesh, another by taking steps to enable himself to run, thus further increasing the number of movements, while another cannot attain health itself, but only running or reduction of flesh, so that one or other of these is for such a being the end. For while it is clearly best for any being to attain the real end, yet, if that cannot be, the nearer it is to the best the better will be its state. It is for this reason that the earth moves not at all and the bodies near to it with few movements. For they do not attain the final end, but only come as near to it as their share in the divine principle permits. But the first heaven finds it immediately with a single movement, and the bodies intermediate between the first and last heavens attain it indeed, but at the cost of a multiplicity of movement.

458. Having proposed the two doubts, the Philosopher here starts to solve them.

First he solves the first question;

secondly, the second one, at as to the difficulty (L. 19; 292b25).

As to the first he does two things:

first he shows what ought to be assumed in order to make the first question easier to resolve;

secondly, he gives the solution, at for it is natural (292a22; [459]).

He says therefore first (292a18) that the reason why the first question is difficult is that we investigate the heavenly bodies as though they were merely an orderly system of bodies without being animated. As a consequence, it seems to us that the order of their motions should be in accord with the order of numbers and according to the position of the bodies. But if the problem at hand is to be settled, we must assume that they have not only some sort of life but also actions — this being proper to things with a rational soul, which act for an end as being masters of their act, and do not act by the sole impulse of nature as do all irrational things. If this is assumed, nothing is seen to be occurring unreasonably if the number of their motions does not proceed according to the position of the bodies. For the diversity and number of the motions is to be taken more in terms of a relation to the final good, which is the principle in all things able to be done [i.e., voluntary actions], as is plain from the words of the Philosopher in Ethics VII and Physics II. One should note in this regard that it makes no difference whether we suppose that the heavenly bodies are moved by intellectual substances united to them after the manner of a soul, or by these as separated. But there would be no way to solve this question if they were moved by the sole impulse of nature, as heavy and light bodies are.

459. Then, at for it is natural (292a22), he presents his solution.

First he states the principles of the solution;

secondly, he applies them to the question at hand, at one thing then has (292b10; [463]).

With respect to the first he does two things:

first he states the principles from which we obtain the reason why the higher planets are moved with a number of motions, while the first mobile is moved with only one;

secondly, he states the principles from which we obtain the reason why the higher planets are moved with a number of motions while the lower planets with fewer, according to the theory of Eudoxus, at and there are yet others (292a27; [460]).

About the first he does two things:

first he states the principle;

secondly, he shows it with an example, at just as with men's bodies (292a24; [459]).

He says therefore first (292a22) that in things that can arrive at a perfect good, three degrees are found.

The highest degree is that of a thing which is in the best state and does not need any action to acquire perfect good, which is already present to it without any action.

The second degree is that of a thing which is nearest to the best in the goodness of its condition, and which, namely, acquires its perfect good by means of one slight action.

The third degree belongs to things that are more removed from the best but still acquire their perfect good through several operations.

Then, at just as with men's bodies (292a24), he manifests this by an example. And he says that among bodies, that body is seen to be in the best condition which does not require any exercise to maintain its good condition, (which is called euechia—"well-being'); in the second grade is a body which attains a good condition by walking just a bit; in the third grade is the body which in order to acquire a good condition needs many forms of exercise such as running, wrestling and boxing.

460. Then, at and there are yet others (292a27) he states the principles with which to solve the second part of the question, namely, why the lower planets are moved with fewer motions than the higher planets.

First he states the principles;

secondly, he gives an example, at we must, then, think (292b1; [461]).

As to the first, he does three things:

first he asserts that there is a certain grade below the three already mentioned (292a27), and he says that in the fourth degree is found something that, in spite of all its labors, cannot reach the state of attaining its perfect good; yet it can attain a certain other good less than the perfect good. For example, a case of this would be should a body be unable, in spite of all its exercise, perfectly to attain to a good condition, but should through certain exercises attain to a slightly better condition than it previously had.

Secondly, at to succeed often (292a28) he shows that even in this grade there is a certain variety. And he says that it is difficult to direct, i.e., to proceed rightly, in the case either of many things or many times, for it is more difficult to be correct in many things than in few. "Many" may be taken as referring either to a diversity of things or to a diversity of actions aimed at one objective—thus his statement, many things, refers to the first; and his statement many times, refers to the second, especially if the actions are not all at once. From this we understand that something which can achieve a good by means of many things is of greater power than something which cannot employ that many, and as a consequence does not attain the good in question.

Thirdly, at for instance, to throw ten thousand (292a29) he gives an example of what he is talking about.

And first of all with reference to the phrase, many things. And he says that it is difficult to throw a myriad, i.e., 10,000, astragals, which are a type of missile from the island of Chios where there are great astragal-throwers (another text has Coos, another Greek island, where there are also great astragal-throwers), but it is easy to throw one or two of them.

Secondly, at in action, again he gives an example of his statement, many times. And he says that whenever it is necessary to do one thing for the sake of another, and this for the sake of another and that for the sake of still another, in such a way, namely, that it is necessary to arrive at one goal by a series of subordinated actions, it is easy to obtain this goal when it can be achieved by one or two actions: for example, if someone buys a horse in order to ride and by riding reaches a certain place. But when a number of actions are required in order to achieve the goal, then it is more difficult. For example, if he should not have ready money with which to buy the horse, but must obtain it by working at some trade, in order to exercise which he must seek the tools required by that trade. It is plain, therefore, that greater power is required, both on the part of the ordering intellect, and on the part of the faculty carrying things out, to reach an objective by many actions, rather than by one or a few.

461. Then, at we must, then, think (292b1), he gives examples of this principle. And he says that, in view of the foregoing, we must reckon that the action of the stars, so far as the multitude or fewness of their actions is concerned, is akin to the action of animals and plants. For we observe among these lower things that man, possessing perfect power of soul, has many operations, because he is able to attain to many goods—for which reason, he can do many things, not only absolutely, but according to the order of one thing to another, as, for example, when he plans a long series of actions all directed to one end. This does not mean, however, that man is the best thing in the universe—for that which is best in the universe, namely, God, needs no action in order to attain his own appropriate good. For he has no end outside himself which must be obtained by some action, but he is his own end and the end of all other things. Now action which is for the sake of an end always involves two things, since it is necessary to consider the end for the sake of which something is done and that which is directed to the end, which is done for the sake of this, i.e., of the end. But animals other than man have fewer actions than man, both because they do not have actions of the intellectual part and because in their exterior actions they have a set pattern predetermined for them by nature—for example, a swallow always builds its nest in the same manner. But plants have perhaps one operation, namely, the nutritive and this small, i.e., imperfect, in comparison to sentient and intellectual operation. The explanation of this diversity is that the end which is reached is either some one perfect good, for example, the end which man reaches, namely, beatitude, which he acquires through many operations, or else the many things pre-requisite to the perfect good, to some one of which plants and animals attain through one or a few operations. For example, beatitude presupposes, first of all, the preservation of life, then knowledge of sensible things, and finally the apprehension of the universal truth, in which final beatitude lies. This last, man alone obtains, but preservation of life plants attain through the act of the nutritive part, while irrational animals, in addition to this, attain the knowledge of individual things.

462. Therefore, it is plain from all the above that there are five orders of things. For the highest among beings is that which possesses perfect good without acting; the second is that which has perfect good through one or a few actions; the third is that which acquires perfect good through many actions, as does man. The fourth grade is that which cannot attain perfect good in any way, but acquires something preliminary to it by a few actions or just one, as is true of animals and plants. There remains for that to be the lowest which can acquire none of these, and because of this does not have as a property the participation in any motion.

Thus that a thing entirely lack motion can occur in two ways: in one way, because it is most perfect; in another, because it is most imperfect. Likewise, that a thing have one or a few motions can occur in two ways: in one way, because it is near to the most perfect; in another, because it is near to the most imperfect. But that a thing have many actions or motions is due to its being in a mediate position.

463. Then, at one thing then has (292b10), he adapts the aforesaid principles to his purpose.

And he says that in the order of things, that which is supreme has and participates in the best without any motion—which indeed happens with the separated substances, which are wholly immobile. Now he says has on account of the highest of the causes, which is the most high God, Who is the very essence of goodness; but he says participates on account of the lower separated substances, which receive being and goodness from another—for to participate is nothing other than to receive from another partially. This, therefore, is the first and supreme order of beings.

He distinguishes a second order and says that it is something which from nearby attains that best thing by a few motions—thus, the highest sphere is said to approach that best thing to the extent that it attains to being the universal cause of bodily things as well as the cause of their permanence.

Then he sets down a third degree, saying that something approaches the supreme good through many motions, as do the higher planets, which are also universal causes of effects in the world, and of the permanence and stability of things.

After that he sets down a fourth degree, saying that there is something which cannot participate that perfect good but it suffices if it approach it in any way at all.

464. In clarification of these, he adds an example, saying that if we suppose health as the objective of life, we find something as best in this regard, namely, what is always healthy.

But in the second degree is found that which is made healthy by the sole process of thinning, i.e., the withdrawing of what is superfluous.

In the third degree is that which indeed acquires health by thinning, but which, in order to be thinned, requires running, and in order to run, must do something else in order to be fit for running—and which thus has a number of motions by which it arrives at the goal of health.

In the fourth degree is that which cannot attain health but attains to something of the things that are preliminaries to health—for example, only to running, or even, beyond that, to becoming thin, neither of which is the goal, but rather they have a goal, namely, health, as has been said.

He gives the reason for this, and says that the absolute best for all things is to attain in some way to the end, namely, whether without any motion, or with a few, or with many motions. However, if the end cannot be achieved, then a thing will always be better the closer it gets to the best — for example, should it reach thinning, which is the thing nearest to health, this is better than reaching the stage of running. From this it is also plain that in each one of these orders there can be many grades.

465. And because the earth is in the order of nature the most distant from the highest order of things, it is therefore absolutely without motion, being incapable as it were of approaching the best under the aspect of being a cause of other things. But the things that are near to the earth and are in the fourth order, are moved with few motions, because they do not attain to the other extreme, which is to be universal causes of the permanence of things; but they are moved to the extent of being able to acquire something of the likeness of the first and most divine principle, under the aspect of being principles of other things. But the first heaven obtains this likeness immediately by a single movement, which pertains to the second degree. But things that are between the first heaven and the outermost bodies, which are in the third order attain to a likeness of the first principle in being able to cause things, but through a number of motions, however.

466. So far, Aristotle has expressed three things: namely, the principle which has and participates in the best—this he has explained to be the "most divine principle." Also he has identified the second order, which attains to the perfect good by a few motions, with the first heaven. He has also assigned the fifth order, which, on account of its imperfections, has no motion, to earth. Now there remains a question about the other two orders; as to what are they to be attributed. For if we attribute the third order to the higher planets on the ground that they attain the perfect and lasting good by means of a number of motions, then the fourth order will seem to be assigned to the sun and moon, which will involve saying that they do not attain the perfect good. But this appears unacceptable, especially since the sun is seen to be the noblest of the planets, and both it and the moon to exercise the greatest influence on lower bodies.

467. And therefore Averroes says in his commentary that the fourth order, which is the order of things that do not attain to perfect good but approach to it by means of a few motions, should be attributed to the three elements, namely, water, air and fire, which indeed are moved by a twofold motion, one being their proper motion according to the nature of lightness or heaviness, and the other being one that they obtain from the heavenly bodies—as fire and the upper region of air are moved circularly according to the motion of the heaven, while the sea flows back and forth according to the motion of the moon. But the third order he attributes to all the planets, which attain perfect good, that is, a universal causality over these lower things by means of a number of motions.

468. But this interpretation leaves Aristotle's doubt unsolved. And therefore, to accord with Aristotle's intention one has to say that the fourth grade should be attributed to the sun and moon which, according to him, are the lowest of the planets. And according to Aristotle's principles, their order in dignity corresponds to the order of their position, on the ground that the higher sphere contains the lower and the container is more noble and more formal than the contained, as is said in Physics IV and as will be said later in the section treating of the earth. According to this, then, it must be understood that the optimum in things is permanence, which, in separated substances, is realized without any motion at all, and whatever of permanence exists in lower things is derived thence. And this explains why the outermost heaven, which is nearest to the separated substances, is by its diurnal motion the cause of the sempiternity and permanence of things; on which account, it ranks highest in resembling the first principle. Further, the higher planets are more a cause of permanence and duration than the lower—for which reason stable things are attributed to Saturn. Hence it is that, according to Ptolemy in his Quadripartite, what belongs to Saturn is attributed to the universal loci [events] of times, while what belongs to Jupiter to the annual loci of times, what belongs to the Sun, Mars, Venus and Mercury, to the loci of months, the phases of the moon to daily loci. Likewise the conjunctions of the higher planets cooperate, according to the astronomers, in producing more universal and permanent effects. But the sun and moon, which are according to Aristotle lower planets, have especial influence for causing transmutations in the lower bodies—which indeed is not itself the optimum but something order to the optimum and preliminary to it; for the lower bodies, through the transmutation of generation and corruption, attain to a perpetuity in the species which they are unable to attain in the individual.

469. Simplicius, however, says in his commentary that he does not reckon the order of nobility of the heavenly bodies to be according to their position, but that each of the heavenly bodies, whether more noble or less noble, is put wherever it is best for it to be. That is why the lights of the world, namely, the sun and moon, are according to Aristotle situated nearest the lower bodies, which need their light. However, the prior interpretation seems truer in terms of agreement with natural principles.

470. According to the theories of present-day astronomers, the number of heavenly bodies seems to be disposed suitably enough, although it is not according to the notion which Aristotle here assigns. For, as has been said above and as Aristotle says in Metaphysics XII, there has to be among the heavenly motions something which is the cause of the perpetuity and duration of things, and something which pertains to the cause of their change; moreover, in each of these orders there must be something supreme. Therefore, just as in the order of the causality of the permanence of things, after the first motion which moves the whole, the eighth sphere obtains pre-eminence, so too in the order of the causality of change in things, the sphere of the sun holds the top place and is in a certain sense proportionate in this order to the sphere of the fixed stars. Thus, just as the sphere of the fixed stars is pre-eminent in having a multitude of stars which befits the universality of its causality, on account of the diverse kinds of its effects, so too the sphere of the sun superabounds in the magnitude of the solar body and its luminosity for the purpose of efficacy in changing lower bodies. Hence, just as two motions are assigned to the sphere of the fixed stars, namely, its own and that of the superior sphere; so also two motions are assigned to the sun, namely" one which is its own, whereby it is moved in its own circle, and the other by which its sphere is moved according to the motion of the sphere of the fixed stars. Now both spheres are, as it were, served by three inferior spheres. Thus, the sphere of the fixed stars is understood, in its role of causing permanence in things and in causing universal effects, to be served by Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, whence these have motions that are uniform in number, for, as has been said, the number of motions assigned to each of them is three. The sun, in its role of causing changes in things, is understood to be served by the three lower planets. And therefore they are differentiated by degrees in the number of their motions, so that two motions are assigned to the Sun, three to Venus, four to Mercury and five to the Moon.

471. One should likewise know that, since Aristotle here assumes that the earth does not participate in any motion, Alexander fittingly says that it is inanimate. But Simplicius in his commentary says that the earth is animate (for on this point he follows the error of the pagans, who bestowed a divine worship upon the earth). But Aristotle rejects this in On the Soul III where he shows that no simple body is animate. And this is plain from an evident sign: for the parts of animals that are more from earth, e.g., bones, are incapable of sensing. If, however, a heavenly body, although simple, should be animate, this would not affect this argument, because a heavenly body is not a subject of contraries as are the simple bodies of the elements.

But Simplicius tries to prove that the earth's body is animated because it endures forever and because some of its parts are animated, forgetting that earth and the other elements are related to animate bodies as matter, whereas celestial body is related to animate bodies as efficient cause. Now efficient cause is nobler than its product and the product nobler than its matter. Hence, even though the heaven has a nobler form than do animate bodies, the elements, however, have a less noble form. Similarly, he tries to show that animation of earth is not ruled out by the fact that it is not moved. In one way, because plants although animated are not moved with respect to place. But in this he is deceived, because although they are not moved with respect to place, nevertheless they are moved by the motion of augmentation and decrease. In another way, because, since even things that understand [intellectually] are said to live; hence there is nothing to prevent the earth from being animate and living, even though it is not moved according to place—for it may be that it understands. But this, too, is contrary to Aristotle, who says in On the Soul II that among the bodies of corruptible things none has intellect without having sense. But that the earth lacks sense is evident from the fact that it is cut and broken up daily. Moreover, since there is the same nature in the whole and in the part and the same motion in each, if the whole earth had an intellective soul, then every separate part of it would have to be animate and intelligent, and furthermore, all compound bodies, in which there is a predominance of earth, would have to be such—which is laughable. He also adds that, although the earth is stationary, nevertheless it has an operation, namely, "standing," so that, just as movement is an operation of a heavenly body, so the earth's operation is to be stationary or at rest. But in this he is deceived, because to stand or to be at rest is not an operation but a privation of operation or motion. Hence, since there must be in every living body some life operation which appears in the very body and not merely in the soul (for otherwise the soul would be united to that body without purpose), it is plain that earth, in whose body none of the operations of life appears, cannot be animated.