Lecture 5 — The remaining two questions about the upper region solved

So we must take the reason why clouds are not formed in the upper region to be this: that it is filled not with mere air but rather with a sort of fire.

However, it may well be that the formation of clouds in that upper region is also prevented by the circular motion. For the air round the earth is necessarily all of it in motion, except that which is cut off inside the circumference which makes the earth a complete sphere. In the case of winds it is actually observable that they originate in marshy districts of the earth; and they do not seem to blow above the level of the highest mountains. It is the revolution of the heaven which carries the air with it and causes its circular motion, fire being continuous with the upper element and air with fire. Thus its motion is a second reason why that air is not condensed into water. But whenever a particle of air grows heavy, the warmth in it is squeezed out into the upper region and it sinks, and other particles in turn are carried up together with the fiery exhalation. Thus the one region is always full of air and the other of fire, and each of them is perpetually in a state of change.

So much to explain why clouds are not formed and why the air is not condensed into water, and what account must be given of the space between the stars and the earth, and what is the body that fills it.

As for the heat derived from the sun, the right place for a special and scientific account of it is in the treatise about sense, since heat is an affection of sense, but we may now explain how it can be produced by the heavenly bodies which are not themselves hot.

We see that motion is able to dissolve and inflame the air; indeed, moving bodies are often actually found to melt.

Now the sun's motion alone is sufficient to account for the origin of terrestrial warmth and heat. For a motion that is to have this effect must be rapid and near, and that of the stars is rapid but distant, while that of the moon is near but slow, whereas the sun's motion combines both conditions in a sufficient degree.

That most heat should be generated where the sun is present is easy to understand if we consider the analogy of terrestrial phenomena, for here, too, it is the air that is nearest to a thing in rapid motion which is heated most. This is just what we should expect, as it is the nearest air that is most dissolved by the motion of a solid body. This then is one reason why heat reaches our world.

Another is that the fire surrounding the air is often scattered by the motion of the heavens and driven downwards in spite of itself.

Shooting-stars further suffix to prove that the celestial sphere is not hot or fiery: for they do not occur in that upper region but below: yet the more and the faster a thing moves, the more apt it is to take fire. Besides, the sun, which most of all the stars is considered to be hot, is really white and not fiery in color.

29. Having solved the question about the order of the elements, he now solves the one about the thickenings which produce clouds. And he gives two solutions.

He derives the first solution from the foregoing, saying that the cause why clouds are not formed together in the upper region of the air must be considered to be the fact that this upper region, which is commonly called "air," is not only air but is something more akin to fire, as has been said. But because clouds are not formed even much below this region, it was necessary to present another solution.

30. Hence he presents a second solution at however, it may well be (340b32), and says that nothing prevents the air's motion in its circuit from inhibiting the gathering of clouds in the upper region; for it is necessary that all the air on the circumference of the earth flow with a circular motion.

But he does not include in that flow the air trapped inside the defined periphery, i.e., the circumference, namely, air enclosed within the parts of the earth, thus making a perfect sphere by virtue of the air enclosed between the parts. Therefore that air exceeding the height of all mountains flows in an orbit, while the air contained below the heights of the mountains is prevented from this flowing, blocked by the immovable parts of the earth. This is the reason why winds seem now to be generated in stagnant areas of the earth, i.e., in air which is trapped between the parts of the earth, as though constituting pools of still air. For if the air where winds are born were moved circularly, it would be necessary that all winds accompany it along its circular orbit; but now we observe that winds blow out of diverse regions.

And because winds are born not in the flowing air, but in the still air, they never exceed the high mountains; for it is said by the ancients that, when sacrifices were made on the loftiest mountains, the ashes, a year later would be found still in the same place intact. The fact that winds are not generated there is a sign, too, that clouds are not condensed into rain there. But why the air above the mountains flows he explains by saying that the reason it flows along in its course is that it is drawn along by the circling of the heaven; for fire is continuous, i.e., contiguous, with the heavenly body, and air with fire.

Therefore, because the upper air flows along, its motion prevents its being gathered into water, for movement rarefies things and prevents coalescence. But whenever a portion of that air condenses in some way, something denser is carried along in some way by some constrained motion, it will be carried downward, i.e., to the place of the air close to the earth; and if anything warm was in it, it would be carried upward. And the other part of that air, which did not become heavy, would be carried upward along with the exhaled fire.

And so, while, of those things which are resolved out of earth and water, something remains in the region of air, and something is carried upward where fire is, one place continues to be filled with air and another filled with fire; but not in such a way that the same air and fire always remain incorrupt in number. What happens is, rather, that, as one portion of air or fire corrupts or is violently expelled toward the earth, another portion is always generated and rises upward from the earth and from the water.

In this way, although there is always air in the region of air, and fire in the region of fire, yet there is always a continual turnover as a result of continuous generation and corruption. An analogy of this is seen in a flowing stream, in which there is always water, yet not the same numerical water, but as some flows on, other flows into its place.

31. Then he summarizes and says, so much to explain (341a9), and he says, so much for what we have to say about the fact that in the upper region of air clouds do not form and no thickening of vapors into water takes place; and also about how we must think of the region between the highest star and the earth, i.e., as to what sort of body it is filled with.

32. Then when he says, **as for the heat **(341a12), he solves the third question. About this he does two things:

First, he states his intention and says that, as to the heat produced in these lower bodies by the sun, it would be more suitable to discuss this formally and diligently, i.e., perfectly, among the matters to be discussed in the books dealing with sense; for "hot is a certain passion of the senses, being the object of the sense of touch. But the sense and the sensible object are treated in the same science, for they are in a certain way referred to each other. However, since the matter at hand demands it, we must now discuss why it is that, though heavenly bodies are not hot as to their nature, yet heat is produced by them in these lower bodies.

33. second at we see that (341a17), he solves the question. And it is divided into two parts:

first, he presents the solution to the question;

second, he proves what he had presupposed in the question, at shooting-stars further suffix to prove (341a31).

The first is divided into two parts, according to the two causes assigned;

the second begins at another is that the fire surrounding (341a28).

With respect to the first he does three things.

First he assigns the cause on account of which heat is generated in these lower bodies by heavenly bodies not themselves hot. And he says that by sense observation we see that movement, since it can separate and rarefy air, can also inflame it: for rarity and combustion go hand in hand, just as do cooling and thickening; and on this account, things borne along, such as arrows, if they include lead and wax, are often seen to melt, as though motion were making them hot. Hence it is not inconceivable that the heaven, by its motion, should heat these lower bodies.

34. second at now the sun's motion alone (341a19), he assigns the cause why heat is caused in these lower bodies more by the motion of the sun than by the motion of some other superior body. And he says that the sun by itself suffices to produce a burning heat in these lower bodies: for the heat produced from other heavenly bodies is almost imperceptible when compared to the heat caused by the sun. The reason for this is that if a motion is to cause vehement heat it must be rapid and close to us. Now the motions, both of the fixed stars, and of the five wandering stars [planets], which are, according to Aristotle, above the sun, namely, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury, are indeed rapid, but they are far from us; on the other hand, the motion of the moon, although it is near, is, however, slow. But the motion of the sun has both, i.e., speed and nearness, in a manner sufficient to cause heat in these lower bodies. What is said here about the velocity of the sun's motion is to be referred to its diurnal motion and not to the proper motions of the stars. For it is plain that all the stars complete their diurnal motion during the same period of time: but the closer a heavenly body is to the center, the smaller is the circumference of its orbit and the slower is it moved. But with respect to proper motions, the moon is moved most rapidly.

35. third at that most heat (341a23), he assigns the cause why heat is generated more by the motion of the body of the sun than by the motion of its sphere. And he says that it is reasonable for heat to be produced more by the solar body itself. Something akin to this can be discerned from what happens where we are [on earth]: for here also the air close to thick objects being moved along through violence becomes very hot. And it is reasonable that this should happen: because it is especially the motion of a solid body that dissolves air; hence, since the solar body is more solid than the other parts of its sphere, since it is not diaphanous, heat is generated more from its motion than from the motion of its sphere. This, therefore, explains why heat from the sun reaches this place, even though the sun itself is not hot.

Nor is any obstacle to this cause offered by the presence between us and the sun of the moon which cannot become hot; for although it is not heated by the sun, it is nevertheless influenced in a certain manner by the sun, for we observe that it is illuminated by the sun. Yet a medium and an extreme are not always changed with the same species of change: thus a ray of the sun does not ignite a [magnifying] glass filled with water, but the piece of flax placed beyond. Also the reason is apparent why, where a shadow is, there is not as much heat as in a place where the sun's rays strike: it is because a shadow is caused by a body blocking the sun and interrupting the continuing transmutation deriving from the sun; however, the action of the sun does reach the place where a shadow is by a sort of reflexion. Nor should it be supposed that the sun's motion, as motion only, causes heat; rather, it is in so far as it is the motion of such a body, i.e., of a body having in its nature the power to cause heat. For all the forms of the lower bodies are reduced back to the heavenly bodies as to certain principles: that is why diverse heavenly bodies produce diverse effects in bodily things, not only so far as heat is considered, but as far as other passions and forms are concerned.

36. Then when he says, another is that the fire surrounding (341a28), he presents a proper cause of heat generated from the motion of the sun: yet not the universal cause but a particular cause. Hence he says that the fire which surrounds the lower parts of the world as a result of a heavenly body's motion is often violently thrust downwards and scattered through the air: because, as was said above, the upper part of the air and fire have a flow on account of the motion of the heaven.

37. Then when he says, shooting-stars further suffix to prove (341a31), he shows something which the question supposed, namely, that heavenly-bodies are not hot or fiery; this he does by two signs.

The first is that in that region we do not see the paths of those stars which seem to be falling [i.e., shooting stars], which are generated by combustion in the lower regions. This would not be the case if heavenly bodies were hot and fiery, because, wherever there is a greater and speedier motion, there something is ignited more readily.

The second sign is that the sun, which especially seems to be hot, considering its effects, is seen to be of a white, and not a fiery, color.