Chapter 154 — Of the gifts of gratuitous grace; in which the divinations of demons are treated

But because man cannot know that which he does not see by himself unless he receives them of one who sees them, and as faith is of things unseen by us, the things that are of faith must be received from one who sees them himself. Now, this one is God, who comprehends himself perfectly, and sees his own essence naturally; (Bk. 1, ch. 47.) for our faith is of God. Hence the things that we hold by faith must come to us from God. Now, because the things that are of God are enacted in a certain order, as we have shown above, (Ch. 77.) a certain order had to be observed in the revelation of those things that are of faith, namely, so that some should receive them immediately from God, and others from these, and thus in orderly fashion down to the very last.

Now, the nearer a thing is to the first principle, the greater its efficacy, wherever there is any kind of order in a number of things. This is to be observed in the order of divine manifestations. (See below: next in rank . . .) For the invisible things—to see which is beatitude, and to believe is faith—are revealed first of all to the blessed angels, so that they see them clearly, as we have already said. (Ch. 79. seqq.)

Afterwards, by the ministry of the angels, they are made known to certain men not so as to be seen clearly, but so as to be known with a certain assurance arising from the divine revelation.

Now, this revelation is made by a certain interior and intellectual light, which raises the mind to the perception of things that it cannot reach by means of its natural light. For just as by its natural light the intelligence is assured of what it knows in that light (for example, first principles), so too it is assured of the things it knows in a supernatural light. And this assurance is necessary in order that things known by divine revelation be proposed to other men: for we have no assurance in proffering to others what we do not hold with certainty. Now, in addition to this same light that enlightens the mind inwardly, there are sometimes some outward or inward aids to knowledge present in divine revelation; as when the words formed by divine power are heard outwardly by sense, or through God’s agency are perceived inwardly by the imagination; or again as when God causes things to be seen outwardly by the eyes, or to be imagined inwardly. From this, man derives knowledge of divine things, aided by the inward light that is shed on his mind. Hence such aids do not suffice for the knowledge of divine things without the inward light; but the inward light suffices without them.

This revelation of the invisible things of God belongs to wisdom, which is the knowledge of divine things, properly speaking. Hence it is said that in every generation divine wisdom passes into holy souls . . . for God loves none but the man who lives with wisdom (Wis 7:27–28); and again: The Lord has filled (Vulgate: she shall fill . . .) him with the spirit of wisdom and understanding (Sir 15:5). (The RSVCE has this at Sirach 39:6.)

But because the invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made (Rom 1:20), by divine grace not only are divine things revealed to men, but also some things about creatures; and this apparently belongs to knowledge. Hence it is said: It is he who gave me unerring knowledge of what exists, to know the structure of the world and the activity of the elements (Wis 7:17). Again, the Lord said to Solomon: Wisdom and knowledge are granted to you (2 Chr 1:12).

Again, man cannot conveniently communicate his knowledge to others except by speech. Since, then, according to the order established by God, those who receive God’s revelation have to instruct others, it was also necessary that they should receive the grace of the word, insofar as it was required for the profit of those to be instructed. Hence it is said: The Lord God has given me the tongue of those who are taught, that I may know how to sustain with a word him that is weary (Isa 50:4). And our Lord said to his disciples: I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which none of your adversaries will be able to withstand or contradict (Luke 21:15). For this same reason, as long as the truth of faith had to be preached in various countries by a few, certain ones were equipped with the gift of speaking in diverse tongues, according to Acts 2:4: They were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.

Since, however, the proffered speech needs confirmation that it may be accepted, unless it be manifest in itself, but things that are of faith are not clear to human reason, it was necessary to provide some means of confirming the utterances of those who preached the faith. But they could not be confirmed by being demonstrated from principles of reason, since matters of faith are above reason. Therefore, the preachers’ words needed to be confirmed by some kind of signs whereby it was made evident that their words were from God, and that the preacher should do such works as healing the sick, and performing other deeds of power, which God alone can do. Hence our Lord, on the point of sending his disciples to preach, said: Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out demons (Matt 10:8); and it is said: And they went forth and preached everywhere, while the Lord worked with them and confirmed the message by the signs that attended it (Mark 16:20).

There was also another manner of confirmation, (See below: Prophecy bears witness . . .) in that when the heralds of truth were found to speak the truth about such hidden things as could subsequently be made manifest, they were believed because they spoke truthfully of things beyond the experience of man. Hence the necessity of the gift of prophecy, whereby through divine revelation they were able to know and announce to others the things that were to happen, and such things as are commonly hidden from man’s knowledge: so that as they were found to speak the truth in these matters, they were believed in matters of faith. Hence the Apostle says: If all prophesy, and an unbeliever or outsider enters, he is convicted by all, he is called to account by all, the secrets of his heart are disclosed; and so, falling on his face, he will worship God and declare that God is really among you (1 Cor 14:24–25).

Nevertheless, the gift of prophecy would not be a sufficient guarantee of faith unless it were about things which God alone can know, even as miracles are such as God alone can do. (Ch. 101. seqq.) The like here below are especially our secret thoughts, which God alone can know, as we proved above, (Bk. 1, ch. 68.) and future contingencies, which also are a matter of God’s knowledge only, because he sees them in themselves—for to him they are present by reason of his eternity, as we proved above. (Bk. 1, ch. 67.)

Some future contingencies, however, can be known by men also: not indeed as future, but as already existing in their causes, for when causes are known (whether in themselves or in certain manifest effects of them, that are called signs), it is possible for men to have foreknowledge of certain future effects. Thus a physician foresees death or health from the state of the forces of nature which he diagnoses from the pulse, urine, and other like signs. Such knowledge of the future is indeed partly certain, and partly uncertain. For there are some preexistent causes from which subsequent effects follow of necessity. Thus death follows of necessity from the preexistent composition of contrary elements in the animal. On the other hand, from some preexistent causes subsequent effects follow not of necessity, but frequently. Thus from the seed of the male being discharged into the womb, there results a perfect human being in the majority of cases; yet sometimes monsters are begotten on account of some obstacle hindering the action of the forces of nature. Of the former effects one has certain foreknowledge, but of the latter no knowledge is infallibly certain. On the other hand, the foreknowledge of the future that is acquired from divine revelation by the grace of prophecy is altogether certain; even as the divine foreknowledge is certain. For God foresees future things not only as in their causes, but infallibly as they are in themselves, as we have already proved. (Bk. 1, ch. 67.) Therefore, in the same way prophetic knowledge of the future is given to man together with perfect certitude. Nor is this certitude incompatible with the contingent nature of future things, as neither is the certitude of God’s knowledge, as was proved above. (Bk. 1, ch. 67.)

Sometimes, however, future effects are revealed to prophets not as they are in themselves, but as they are in their causes. And then if the causes are hindered from producing their effects, nothing prevents the prophets’ foretelling from undergoing a change. Thus Isaias foretold to the dying Ezechias: Set your house in order; for you shall die, you shall not recover (Isa 38:1), and yet he recovered; and the prophet Jonas foretold that after forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown (Jonah 3:4), and yet it was not destroyed. Accordingly, Isaias foretold the future death of Ezechias with reference to the relation of his bodily condition and of other inferior causes to that effect, and Jonas foretold the destruction of Nineveh with reference to the exigency of its merits; but in each case the event proved otherwise according to God’s operation of deliverance and healing.

Hence prophetic foretelling of the future is a sufficient argument of faith, because, though men know some future things, foreknowledge of future contingencies, such as that of prophecy, has no certitude. For even if at times a prophet receives a revelation according to the relation of certain causes to a certain effect, nevertheless at the same time, or afterwards, it is revealed to him how the fulfilment of the future effect is to be changed. Thus the recovery of Ezechias was revealed to Isaias (Isa 38:5), and the deliverance of the Ninevites to Jonas (Jonah 4:5).

Now, as we proved above, (Ch. 103.) wicked spirits, in the endeavor to corrupt the true of faith, abuse the working of miracles in order to lead men into error, and to weaken the proofs of the true faith: not, however, by working real miracles, but by doing things which appear to men miraculous. In the same way, they abuse the foretellings of prophecy, not indeed by uttering real prophecies, but by foretelling things in accordance with an order of causes unknown to man, so as to appear to foresee future events in themselves. And though contingent effects arise from natural causes, these same spirits, by the acuteness of their intelligence, are able to know better than men when and how the effects of natural causes can be hindered; so, in foretelling the future, they seem to be more wonderful and truthful than the wisest of men.

Now, among natural causes, the highest and furthest removed from our knowledge are the powers of heavenly bodies; that these are known to the aforesaid spirits as regards the property of their nature has been shown above. (Bk. 2, ch. 99. seqq.) Since, then, all bodies in this lower world are ruled through the powers and movement of higher bodies, (Ch. 82.) the spirits in question are able much better than any astrologer to forecast future winds and storms, changes of weather, and other like events which occur through changes in these lower bodies brought about by the movement of the bodies above. And although heavenly bodies are unable to cause a direct impression on the intellective part of the soul, as we have proved, (Ch. 84. seqq.) yet many there are who follow the bent of their passions and their bodily inclinations, which the heavenly bodies are clearly able to influence; for none but the wise, who are few, are able to curb these passions by their reason. Hence also they are able to foretell many things regarding human actions, although sometimes even they fail in their forecast on account of free-will.

Moreover, when they foretell what they foresee, they do not enlighten the mind as God does when he reveals anything, for it is not their intention to perfect the human mind unto the knowledge of truth, but on the contrary to turn it away from the truth. Their forecasts are sometimes connected with the working of the imagination, either during sleep, as when they draw indications of the future from dreams; or in waking, as when people in a trance or a fit foretell certain future events. Sometimes their forecast is taken from external signs: for instance, by observing the flight and chattering of birds, by studying the entrails of animals, or the combination of certain dots, and by like practices, all of which seemingly depend on chance. Sometimes from visible apparitions, and foretelling the future in audible words.

And although in the last instance it is evident that wicked spirits must intervene, they strive to account for the other cases by referring them to natural causes. For they contend that since a heavenly body conduces by its movement to certain effects in this lower world, there appear signs of these effects in certain things by the same agency, because different things receive the celestial influence in different ways. Accordingly, they say that the impression made by a heavenly body on one thing may be taken as a sign of the impression made on another. And so they assert that movements which are independent of the reason’s deliberation—such as things seen by dreamers and lunatics, the flight and twittering of birds, and arrangements of dots when made at haphazard—are consequent to the impressions made by a heavenly body. And consequently they say that such things can be signs of the future events that are caused by the heaven’s movement.

Since, however, there is but little reason in all this, we should judge rather that the forecasts made from such signs have their foundation in some intellectual substance, by whose power the aforesaid indeliberate movements are controlled, so as to be in keeping with the reading of the future. And though such things are sometimes controlled by the divine will through the ministry of good spirits, for God reveals many things by means of dreams—for instance, to Pharaoh (Gen 41:25), and Nabuchodonosor (Dan 2:28), and in the words of Solomon: The lot is cast into the lap, but the decision is wholly from the Lord (Prov 16:33)—yet they do result sometimes from the operation of wicked spirits; for such is the teaching of holy doctors, and the opinion even of the heathens. Thus Valerius Maximus (Valerius Maximus, Facta et Dicta Memorabilia,* bk. 1, ch. 1.)* says that the observing of omens and dreams and the like belongs to a religion in which idols are worshipped. Hence in the old law, all these were forbidden together with idolatry, for it is said: You shall not learn to follow the abominable practices of those nations, who worshipped idols; there shall not be found among you any one who burns his son or his daughter as an offering, any one who practices divination, a soothsayer, or an augur, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, or a medium, or a wizard, or a necromancer (Deut 18:9–11).

Prophecy bears witness (See above: There was also . . .) also in another way to the preaching of the faith, namely, when the preacher proclaims, as articles of faith, events that take place in the course of time, such as Christ’s birth, passion and resurrection, and the like. And lest people think such things to be invented by the preacher, or to have happened by chance, they are proved to have been foretold by the prophets a long time in advance. Therefore, the Apostle says: Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God (which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures), the gospel concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh (Rom 1:1–3).

Next in rank (See above: Now wherever . . .) to those who receive revelation from God immediately, another degree of grace is necessary. For, since God vouchsafes revelation to man not only for the present time, but also for the instruction of all in the time to come, it was necessary that the things revealed should be delivered not only by word of mouth to the present generation, but also by the written word for the instruction of the future generation. Hence the need for someone to interpret these writings. And this must be a divine grace, even as revelation itself was made by the grace of God. Therefore, it is said: Do not interpretations belong to God? (Gen 40:8).

Then comes the last degree, namely, of those who faithfully believe the things revealed to others, and interpreted by others, (See last paragraph: Next in rank . . .) and that this is God’s gift has been shown above. (Ch. 152.)

Nevertheless, though the wicked spirits do works like those by which faith is confirmed, both in working signs and in revealing the future, as stated above; (See above: Now as we proved . . .) lest men be deceived by such things and believe in falsehoods, it is necessary that they be instructed in the discerning of such spirits by the aid of divine grace: Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are of God (1 John 4:1).

These effects of grace intended for the instruction and confirmation of faith are enumerated by the Apostle, where he says: To one is given through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to another the utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit, to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, to another the working of miracles, to another prophecy, to another the ability to distinguish between spirits, to another various kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of tongues (1 Cor 12:8–10).

Hereby we refute the error of certain Manicheans who deny that miracles worked on bodies are done by God. Likewise, we refute the error of those who said that the prophets did not speak by the Spirit of God. We also refute the error of Priscilla and Montanus, who said that the prophets, like men in a trance, understood not what they said. For this is incompatible with divine revelation, whereby the mind chiefly is enlightened.

Now we must observe a certain difference in the aforesaid (From ch. 151.) effects of grace. For though the name of grace befits them all, in that they are bestowed gratis, without any preceding merit, the effect alone of love deserves furthermore the name of grace for this other reason: it makes man gratifying to God. For it is said: I love those who love me (Prov 8:17). Consequently, faith and hope (and other things directed to faith) can be in sinners who are not gratifying to God, but love alone is the peculiar gift of the just, because he who abides in charity abides in God, and God abides in him (1 John 4:16).

But there is yet another difference to be noticed in the aforesaid effects of grace. For some of them are necessary to man during his whole life, seeing that without them he cannot be saved: for instance, faith, hope, charity, and obedience to God‘s commandments. For such effects, man needs to have certain habitual perfections within him in order that he may be able to act according to them when it is time for him to do so. But the other effects are necessary not during the whole of man‘s life, but at certain times and places, such as working miracles, foretelling the future, and so forth. For habitual perfections are not bestowed, but certain impressions are made by God which cease as soon as the act ceases, and must be repeated when there is need for the act to be repeated. Thus the prophet‘s mind is enlightened with a new light in each revelation, and in each miraculous work there must be a renewal of the activity of the divine power.