Lecture 2 — The Beatitudes

^5:3^ Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. [n. 415]

^5:4^ Blessed are the meek: for they will possess the land. [n. 419]

^5:5^ Blessed are they who mourn: for they will be comforted. [n. 422]

^5:6^ Blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice: for they will have their fill. [n. 427]

^5:7^ Blessed are the merciful: for they will obtain mercy. [n. 430]

^5:8^ Blessed are the clean of heart: for they will see God. [n. 434]

^5:9^ Blessed are the peacemakers: for they will be called children of God. [n. 436]

^5:10^ Blessed are they who suffer persecution for justice’s sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. [n. 443]

403. Above, the Evangelist set down a brief title, as it were, of the teaching of Christ; (The "brief title" to which he refers comprises the first two verses of Matthew 5.) now he sets down the teaching itself, and its effect, namely, the wonder of the crowds.

Now it should be considered that, according to Augustine, the whole perfection of our life is contained in this sermon of the Lord. (Augustine, The Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 1.) And he proves it by the fact that the Lord includes the end to which he leads us, that is, a promise. But that which man desires most of all is beatitude. Hence the Lord does three things.

First, he promises a reward, which those who accept this teaching will obtain;

second, he sets down the precepts, at do not think that I have come to destroy the law (Matt 5:17);

third, he teaches how someone can succeed in observing them, at ask, and it will be given to you (Matt 7:7).

Concerning the first, he does two things, because some are only observers of this teaching, others ministers.

First, therefore, he describes the beatitude of the one who observes the precepts;

second, the beatitude of the ministers, at blessed are you when they will revile you (Matt 5:11).

404. Now, one should note that many things are set down here about the beatitudes; but never could anyone speak so skillfully about the Lord’s words that he could attain to the Lord’s purpose. Yet one should know that all complete happiness is included in these words: for all men desire happiness, but they differ in their judgments about happiness, and for this reason some men desire this, others desire that.

But we find four opinions about happiness. For some believe that it consists only in exterior things: namely, in an abundance of temporal things; they have called the people happy, that have these things (Ps 144:15). Others, that perfect beatitude consists in the fact that a man fulfills his own will; hence we say, blessed is he who lives as he wants. And I have known that there was no better thing than to rejoice, and to do well in this life (Eccl 3:12). Others say that perfect beatitude consists in the virtues of the active life. Others, that it consists in the virtues of the contemplative life, namely of divine and intelligible things, as Aristotle says. (See Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, bk. 10.)

But all these opinions are false, although not in the same way. Hence the Lord condemns all these.

405. He condemns the opinion of those who say that it consists in the abundance of exterior things: hence, he says, blessed are the poor, as though to say, the wealthy are not happy.

406. And he condemns the opinion of those who place beatitude in the satisfaction of appetite when he says, blessed are the merciful.

But one should know that there are three appetites in man. The irascible, which desires vengeance on enemies, and he condemns this when he says, blessed are the meek. The concupiscible, whose good is to rejoice and be delighted; he condemns this when he says, blessed are they who mourn. The will, which is twofold, according as it seeks two things: first, that the will be forced by no higher law; second, that it be able to bind others as subjects: hence it desires to command, and not to be under another. But the Lord shows the contrary regarding both. And regarding the first, he says, blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice. Regarding the second, he says, blessed are the merciful. Therefore both those who place beatitude in the abundance of exterior things and those who place it in the satisfaction of appetite are wrong.

407. Those, however, who place beatitude in the actions of the active life, namely, in moral acts, are wrong, but less so, because that is the way to beatitude. Hence the Lord does not condemn them as though evil, but shows the ordering to beatitude. Because the virtues of the active life are either ordered to oneself, such as temperance and others of this kind, and their end is cleanness of heart, because they enable one to conquer the passions; or they are ordered to another, and so their end is peace, and of this kind: the work of justice will be peace (Isa 32:17). And therefore these virtues are ways to beatitude, and not beatitude itself; and this is blessed are the clean of heart: for they will see God. He does not say, they see, because this would be beatitude itself. And similarly, blessed are the peacemakers, not because they make peace, but because they tend toward something else: for they will be called children of God.

408. Now, the opinion of those who say that beatitude consists in the contemplation of divine things is condemned by the Lord only as to the timing, for otherwise it is true; because the last happiness does consist in the vision of the best intelligible, namely God; hence he says, they will see.

And one should note that, according to the Philosopher, two things are required for the contemplative act to make one happy: one has to do with the substance, namely, that it be the act of the highest intelligible, which is God; the other has to do with form, namely love and delight, for delight perfects happiness just as beauty perfects youth. (See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 10, par. 4.) And therefore the Lord sets down two things, they will see God and they will be called children of God, for this pertains to the union of love. Behold what manner of charity the Father has bestowed upon us, that we should be called, and should be the sons of God (1 John 3:1).

409. Likewise, one should note that in these beatitudes, certain things are set down as merits, and certain things as rewards: and this is clear in each case. Blessed are the poor in spirit: here is a merit; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven: here is the reward; and so on in the others.

410. And one should note also something about merit in general, and something about reward in general. About merit, one should know that the Philosopher distinguishes two kinds of virtue: one common, which perfects a man in a human manner; the other special, which he calls heroic, which perfects above the human manner. (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 7, par. 1.) For when a brave man fears where there is something to be feared, that is a virtue; but if he did not fear, it would be a vice. But if he feared nothing, trusting in the help of God, that would be a virtue above the human manner; and these virtues are called divine. Therefore, these acts are perfect, and virtue also is a perfect operation, according to the Philosopher. (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 2, par. 6.) So these merits are either acts of the gifts, or acts of the virtues according as they are perfected by the gifts.

411. Likewise, note that the acts of the virtues are those about which the law commands; moreover, the merits of the beatitudes are acts of the virtues; and therefore all those things which are commanded and are contained below are referred back to these beatitudes. Hence just as Moses first set down the commandments, and afterwards said many things which were all referred back to the commandments given, so Christ in his teaching first sets forth these beatitudes, to which all the others are reduced.

412. Concerning the first, one should note that God is the reward of those who serve him; the Lord is my portion, said my soul: therefore will I wait for him (Lam 3:24); the Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup (Ps 16:5); I am the Lord who brought you out from Ur of the Chaldees, to give you this land, and that you might possess it (Gen 15:7). And as Augustine says in Book II of the Confessions: when a soul turns away from you, it seeks goods outside of you. Now, men seek diverse things; but anything that can be found in any life, the Lord promises in its entirety in God. For some place the highest good in the abundance of riches, through which they can attain the greatest dignity; the Lord promises a kingdom which embraces both, but he says that one must arrive at this kingdom by the way of poverty, not of riches. Hence, blessed are the poor. Others arrive at this honor through war; but the Lord says, blessed are the meek. Others seek consolations through pleasure; the Lord says, blessed are they who mourn. Some are unwilling to be subject to another; but the Lord says, blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice. Some wish to avoid evil by oppressing those subject to them; the Lord says, blessed are the merciful. Some place the vision of God in the contemplation of truth in this life; but the Lord promises this vision in the homeland; hence, blessed are the clean of heart.

413. And one should notice that these rewards, which the Lord touches upon here, can be had in two ways, namely perfectly and completely, and they are had in this way only in the homeland; or as a beginning and imperfectly, and they are had in this way in this life. Hence the saints have a certain beginning of that beatitude. And because these things cannot be explained in this life as they will be in the homeland, therefore Augustine explains them according as they are in this life; therefore, blessed are the poor in spirit: not in hope only, but also in actuality. (Augustine, On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 4.) For lo, the kingdom of God is within you (Luke 17:21).

Hence, these things having been prefaced, let us proceed to the text.

414. The Evangelist does two things in these beatitudes.

First, the beatitudes themselves are set down;

second, a manifestation of the beatitudes, at blessed are they who suffer persecution for justice’s sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven; for this expresses all the beatitudes.

Now, virtue does three things: for it removes one from evil, works and makes one to work what is good, and disposes one to what is best.

First, then, he determines about the first, at blessed are the poor; about the second, at blessed are they who hunger; about the third, at blessed are the clean of heart.

Moreover, virtue removes one from three evils: greed, cruelty or disturbance, and harmful pleasure.

The first is noted at blessed are the poor; the second, at blessed are the meek; the third, at blessed are they who mourn.

415. He says then, blessed are the poor. It is read in two ways.

First, in this way: blessed are the poor, i.e., the humble, who reckon themselves to be poor; for they are the truly humble who reckon themselves poor, not only in external things, but even in interior things; I am a beggar and poor (Ps 40:17); on the other hand: I am rich, and made wealthy, and have need of nothing: and know not, that you are wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked (Rev 3:17).

And then what is said, in spirit, can be read in three ways. For the pride of a man is sometimes called the spirit; cease therefore from the man, whose breath is in his nostrils, for he is reputed high (Isa 2:22); the spirit of the mighty is like a whirlwind beating against a wall (Isa 25:4). And pride is called spirit because as breath inflates a bag, so pride inflates men: puffed up by the sense of his flesh (Col 2:18). Therefore, blessed are the poor, namely those who have little of the spirit of pride. Or spirit is taken as the will of man. For some are humble by necessity, and these are not blessed, but rather those who put on humility. Third, it is taken as the Holy Spirit; hence, blessed are the poor in the Spirit, who are humble through the Holy Spirit. And these two come to the same thing, so to speak. And he says, the poor in spirit, because humility gives one the Holy Spirit; but for whom will I have respect, except him that is poor and little, and of a contrite spirit, and that trembles at my words? (Isa 66:2).

To these poor ones is promised the kingdom, in which is understood the highest excellence. And although this is bestowed upon any virtue, yet it is especially given to humility; because he who humbles himself, will be exalted (Luke 14:11). And, glory will uphold the humble of spirit (Prov 29:23).

416. Or in another way, according to Jerome. Poor in spirit, literally, in renunciation of temporal things. (Jerome, Commentary on Matthew (CPL 0590), bk. 5, par. 3.) And he says, in spirit, because some are poor by necessity, but beatitude is not due them, but rather to those who are poor by will. And those who are poor by will are so called in two ways, because although some have riches, yet they do not have them in their heart; if riches abound, set not your heart upon them (Ps 62:11). Others neither have, nor desire, and this is more secure, because the mind is drawn from spiritual things by riches. And these are properly called poor in spirit, because the acts of the gifts, which are above the human manner, are those of the blessed man: and that a man should reject all riches, so that he does not even desire them in some way, this is above the human manner.

417. To these is promised the kingdom of heaven, in which is indicated not only loftiness of honor, but the abundance of riches; has not God chosen the poor in this world, rich in faith, and heirs of the kingdom which God has promised to those who love him? (Jas 2:5).

And note that Moses first promised riches; the Lord your God will make you higher than all the nations that are on the earth (Deut 28:1); and further down, blessed will you be in the city, and blessed in the field. And therefore, that the Lord might distinguish the old law from the new, he first places beatitude in the contempt of temporal riches.

418. Likewise note, following Augustine, that this beatitude pertains to the gift of fear. (Augustine, On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 4.) Because fear, most of all filial fear, makes one have reverence toward God; and out of this a man despises riches. Isaiah sets out the beatitudes in descending order: and there will come forth a rod out of the root of Jesse, and a flower will rise up out of his root. And the spirit of the Lord will rest upon him: the spirit of wisdom, and of understanding, the spirit of counsel, and of fortitude, the spirit of knowledge, and of piety. And the spirit of the fear of the Lord will fill him (Isa 11:1–3). Christ sets them out the other way around, from the gift of fear, namely from poverty, because Isaiah foretold the coming of Christ to earth, but Christ drew men up from the earth.

419. Blessed are the meek. This is the second beatitude; but lest someone say that poverty is enough for beatitude, he shows that it is not enough: rather gentleness is required, which restrains one with regard to anger, just as temperance restrains one with regard to concupiscence; for he is meek who does not grow angry. Now this could come about by virtue, namely that you are not angered except by a just cause; but if you are not provoked even when you have a just cause, this is above the human manner; and therefore he says, blessed are the meek. For fighting is on account of an abundance of external things; and therefore there would be no disturbance if a man did not desire riches. And therefore those who are not meek are not poor in spirit. And this is why he immediately adds, blessed are the meek.

And note that this consists in two things. First, that a man is not angered; second, that if he is angered, he restrains his anger. Ambrose speaks this way: it belongs to the prudent man to moderate the motion of anger, nor is it called a lesser virtue to be angry with restraint, than not to be angered at all. I judge the latter much easier, the former much harder. (Ambrose of Milan, Commentary on Luke (CPL 0143), bk. 5, par. 54.)

420. Chrysostom says: among many eternal promises, he places one earthly promise. (John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Gospel of Saint Matthew hom. 15, par. 5.) Hence, literally, the meek possess that land. For many go to court to acquire possessions, but frequently they lose their life and all their things; but frequently the gentle have it all: the meek will inherit the land (Ps 37:11).

But it is better explained as referred to the future. And then it can be explained in many ways. Hilary speaks this way: they will possess the land, i.e., the glorified body of Christ, because they will be conformed to that brilliance in their own body; (Hilary of Poitiers, Commentary on Matthew (CPL 0430), ch. 4, par. 3.) his eyes will see the king in his beauty, they will see the land far off (Isa 33:17); who will reform the body of our lowness, made like to the body of his glory (Phil 3:21).

Or in another way. This land is the land of the dead for a while, because it is subjected to corruption, but it will be freed from corruption, according to the Apostle (Rom 8:21). Therefore this land, when it is glorified and freed from the servitude of corruption, will be called the land of the living. Or, by the land is understood the fiery heaven, where the blessed are; (The "empyrean heaven" (AKA "fiery heaven") mentioned here is the highest of the three heavens or celestial spheres that St. Thomas, with many of his contemporaries, believed to exist as part of the physical world (see Summa theologiae 1.68.4). On the authority of the fathers and scriptural allusion, St. Thomas understood the empyrean heaven to be a motionless, luminous, physical realm that moved the lower heavens. Most importantly, however, it was where the angels and the blessed enjoy the contemplation of God. See 2 Cor 12:1–2 and St. Thomas' commentary on the same.) and it is called the land, because just as the land is related to heaven, so is that heaven related to the heaven of the Holy Trinity. Or, they will possess the land, i.e., their own glorified body.

Augustine explains this metaphorically, and he says that by this one should understand a certain solidity of the saints in the knowledge of the first truth; (Augustine, On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 2.) I believe I shall see the good things of the Lord in the land of the living (Ps 27:13).

421. This second beatitude is related to the gift of piety, because those get angry, properly speaking, who are not contented with the divine ordering of things.

422. Blessed are they who mourn. Two beatitudes were mentioned by which we are drawn away from the evils of desire and of cruelty; here a third is set down, by which we are drawn away from the evil of harmful pleasure or enjoyment. And this is blessed are they who mourn.

In the Old Testament, he promised earthly things, and earthly enjoyment; and they will flow together to the good things of the Lord, for the corn, and wine, and oil (Jer 31:12). Then after that, then will the virgin rejoice in the dance, the young men and old men together. But the Lord on the contrary places beatitude in mourning.

But one should notice that not just any lamenting can be called mourning, but that by which someone laments a dead one dear to him; for the Lord speaks here by way of excess. Just as above, blessed are the poor, so here he mentions the greatest grief; for just as those who grieve the dead receive no consolation, so the Lord wishes our life to be in mourning; make mourning as for an only son, a bitter lamentation (Jer 6:26).

And this mourning can be explained in three ways. First, for sins, not only personal, but another’s as well, for if we mourn those who are dead in body, much more those who are dead spiritually; how long will you mourn for Saul? (1 Sam 16:1); who will give water to my head, and a fountain of tears to my eyes? And I will weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people (Jer 9:1). Now this beatitude is set down fittingly enough after the previous one. For someone could say, ‘it is enough not to do evil,’ and this is true in the beginning, before sin; but after a sin is committed, it is not enough unless you make satisfaction. Second, it can be taken as mourning for our dwelling in present misery; woe is me, that my sojourning is prolonged! (Ps 120:5). This is the watering above and below, about which, weep over your sins, and over the sojourning of the heavenly homeland (Jos 15:19). (It is unclear which passage(s) St. Thomas is citing here. Only part of the quotation matches Joshua 15:19: "Give me a blessing: thou hast given me a southern and dry land, give me also a land that is watered. And Caleb gave her the upper and the nether watery ground.) Third, according to Augustine, for the mourning which men make over the joys of the world, which they abandon by coming to Christ; for some men die to the world, and the world dies to them; (Augustine, On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 2.) but God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ; by whom the world is crucified to me, and I to the world (Gal 6:14). Now as we mourn over the dead, so these men mourn, because it cannot be but that they feel some sorrow in abandoning everything.

423. Moreover, to these three mournings correspond three consolations, because to the mourning for sins corresponds remission of sins, which David begged for, saying, restore unto me the joy of your salvation (Ps 51:12). To the delay of the heavenly homeland and the dwelling in present misery corresponds the consolation of eternal life, about which it is said, I will turn their mourning into joy, and will comfort them, and make them joyful after their sorrow (Jer 31:13); and, you will be comforted in Jerusalem (Isa 66:13). To the third mourning corresponds the consolation of divine love; for when someone sorrows over the loss of a thing loved, he takes consolation if he acquires another thing more loved. Hence men are consoled when instead of temporal things they receive spiritual and eternal things, which is to receive the Holy Spirit; which is why he is called the Comforter (John 15:26). For men rejoice through the Holy Spirit, who is the divine love; your sorrow will be turned into joy (John 16:20).

424. And one should note that this beatitude is appropriated to the gift of knowledge, because they mourn who know the misery of others; hence it says about certain men who do not have such knowledge, they lived in a great war of ignorance, they call so many and so great evils peace (Wis 14:22); on the other hand, he that adds knowledge, adds also labor (Eccl 1:18).

425. And one should notice that this reward is so ordained that the second is always added onto the first. For first he said, blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven; afterward, for they will possess the land: for it is more to possess than merely to have. Likewise, afterward, for they will be comforted: for it is more to be consoled than to possess, for some possess things but do not take delight in them.

426. Next, those beatitudes being set down which pertain to the removal of evil, here the beatitude which pertains to the working of good is set down. And our good is twofold, namely the good of justice and the good of mercy. And so he sets out two things.

427. As regards the first, he says, blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice. Justice is taken in three ways, according to Chrysostom and the Philosopher. (This three-way distinction of justices appears to be an error in the manuscripts as can be seen from the fact that he goes on to enumerate only two forms of justice along the lines of the universal-general distinction affirmed by both Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics 5) and John Chrysostom (Homilies on the Gospel of Saint Matthew 4.7). See also the alternate Basel Manuscript of this lecture, in which the distinction is a twofold (dupliciter) rather than three as in this version of the manuscript (Anton ten Klooster, "Thomas Aquinas on the Beatitudes: Edition of the Basel Manuscript," European Journal for the Study of Thomas Aquinas 36, no. 1. (December 2017): 40–87) and other places in St. Thomas' corpus where he ascribes a twofold distinction of justice to Aristotle and Chrysostom (Summa theologiae 2–2.58.7, On Matthew 1.4).) For sometimes it is taken as every virtue: and every virtue is called legal justice, which commands concerning the acts of the virtues. Hence insofar as a man obeys the law, he fulfills the work of all the virtues. It is taken in another way as a particular virtue, one of the four cardinal virtues, to which is opposed greed, or injustice, and it concerns buying, selling, and renting.

So what he says here, who hunger after justice, can be understood generally, or particularly.

If it is understood as about the general meaning of justice, he says this for two reasons. The first is Jerome’s, who says that it is not enough that a man should work the work of justice, unless he works with desire; (Jerome, Commentary on Matthew (CPL 0590), bk. 5, par. 6.) I will freely sacrifice to you (Ps 54:6). And in another place, my soul has thirsted after the strong living God; when will I come and appear before the face of God? (Ps 42:2). I will send forth a famine into the land: not a famine of bread, nor a thirst of water, but of hearing the word of the Lord (Amos 8:11). Therefore it is a hunger when someone works with desire.

Another reason. Justice is twofold, perfect and imperfect. We cannot have perfect justice in this world, because if we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us (1 John 1:8). And, all our justices are as the rag of a menstruous woman (Isa 64:6). But we have this in heaven; your people will be all just, they will inherit the land for ever (Isa 60:21). But we can have a desire for justice here: and therefore, he says, blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice. And what Pythagoras did is similar. (Pythagoras was a philosopher and mathematician from the 6th century B.C. Elsewhere (Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle 1.3) St. Thomas further explains that Pythagoras refused to be called a sophos because he felt this label to be presumptuous.) For in the time of Pythagoras, those who studied were called ‘sophi’, i.e., wise men; but Pythagoras did not wish to be called ‘sophos’, i.e., wise, but ‘philosopher’, that is, a lover of wisdom; in this way the Lord wills that his own be and be called lovers of justice.

But if it is understood as about particular justice, which is that a man render to each what is his own, then it is fittingly said, blessed are they who hunger, because hunger and thirst properly belong to the greedy, since those who desire to possess another’s goods unjustly are never satisfied. Hence the hunger about which the Lord speaks is opposed to this one, namely the hunger of the greedy. And the Lord wills that we pant after that justice in this way, because we will never be, as it were, satisfied in this life, just as the greedy man is never satisfied. Blessed are they who hunger and thirst after justice: for they will have their fill.

428. A fitting reward is set forth, they will have their fill, and it is first in the eternal vision, for they will see God through his essence; I will be satisfied when your glory will appear (Ps 17:15). For there nothing remains to be desired; who satisfies your desire with good things (Ps 103:5); to the just their desire will be given (Prov 10:24).

Second, in the present. And this satisfaction is twofold. One is in spiritual goods, that is in the fulfillment of God’s commands; my meat is to do the will of him that sent me, that I may perfect his work (John 4:34); and Augustine explains this. In another way, it is taken as concerning a plenitude of temporal things. Unjust men are never filled, but men who have as their end justice itself, do not go beyond it; the just eats and fills his soul: but the belly of the wicked is never to be filled (Prov 13:25).

429. According to Augustine, this beatitude is reduced to the gift of fortitude, because it pertains to fortitude that a man works justly. (Augustine, On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount (CPL 0274), bk. 1, par. 4.) Likewise, he adds something to the reward set out above, because to be filled is to fulfill the desires entirely.

Likewise, note that first he says, blessed are they who mourn, for when a man is ill, he does not desire to eat, but he begins to desire when he has just begun to be healed; and so it is in the spiritual life, for when men are in sin, they do not feel spiritual hunger, but when they abandon sin, then they feel it. And therefore he immediately adds, blessed are the merciful, because justice without mercy is cruelty, while mercy without justice is the mother of laxity. And so it is necessary that both be joined together: let not mercy and truth leave you (Prov 3:3). Mercy and truth have met each other: justice and peace have kissed (Ps 85:10).

430. Blessed are the merciful: for they will obtain mercy. To be merciful is to have a miserable heart at the misery of others. Moreover, we have pity on the miseries of others when we think of them as our own. Now, we sorrow for our miseries, and we are eager to drive them away; therefore you are truly merciful when you are eager to drive away the misery of others.

And the misery of one’s neighbor is twofold. First, in temporal things, and for this we should have a miserable heart; he who has the substance of this world, and will see his brother in need, and will shut up his innermost from him: how does the charity of God abide in him? (1 John 3:17). Second, when a man is made miserable through sin; because, just as there is beatitude in the works of the virtues, so there is a particular misery in vices. Sin makes nations miserable (Prov 14:34). And therefore, when we warn those falling so that they may return, we are merciful; and seeing the multitudes, he had compassion on them (Matt 9:36). Therefore, these merciful ones are blessed.

431. And why? For they will obtain mercy. And one should know that the gifts of God always exceed our merit; for the Lord makes recompense, and will give you seven times as much (Sir 35:13). Therefore the mercy which our Lord has on us is much greater than that which we have on our neighbor.

This mercy is begun in this life in two ways. First, because sins are loosed: who forgives all your iniquities (Ps 103:3). Second, because he removes temporal defects, such that he makes his sun to rise (Matt 5:45); yet it will be perfected in the future, when every misery, both of guilt and of punishment, will be taken away. O Lord, your mercy is in heaven (Ps 36:6). And this is for they will obtain mercy.

432. This beatitude is reduced to the gift of counsel; because this is a unique counsel, that we should obtain mercy amidst the dangers of this world. Godliness is profitable to all things (1 Tim 4:8); wherefore, O king, let my counsel be acceptable to you (Dan 4:24).

433. So in this way are set down the acts of the virtues by which we are withdrawn from what is evil and do what is good. Now are set down the acts by which we are disposed to what is best; hence, blessed are the clean of heart. This beatitude consists in two things: in the vision of God and in the love of neighbor. Hence,

first, he sets out the beatitude which pertains to the vision of God;

second, the beatitude which pertains to the love of neighbor, at blessed are the peacemakers.

434. He says then, blessed are the clean of heart: for they will see God.

Here there is first a question of literal meaning. For we know that God cannot be seen: No man has ever seen God (1 John 4:12). And lest someone say that although no one sees at present, he will see in the future, the Apostle takes this possibility away: Who only has immortality, and inhabits light inaccessible, whom no man has seen, nor can see (1 Tim 6:16).

But one should know that there are different opinions about this. For some have held that God is never seen in his essence, but in some reflection of his glory; but the Gloss condemns this, commenting on, man will not see me and live (Exod 33:20), with two arguments. First, because this opposes the authority of Sacred Scripture, we will see him as he is (1 John 3:2). Similarly, we see now through a glass in a dark manner; but then face to face (1 Cor 13:12). It is likewise opposed to reason, because the beatitude of man is the last good of man, in which his desire is set to rest. Now, it is a natural desire that a man, seeing an effect, inquires about the cause; hence also the philosophers’ wonder was the origin of philosophy, because when they saw effects, they wondered and sought the cause. Therefore, that desire will not be set to rest until it arrives at the first cause, which is God, namely at the divine essence itself. Therefore, he will be seen through his essence.

Others have erred even more, holding the contrary position, for they said that we will see the essence of God not only with the eye of the mind, but with the eye of the body as well, and that Christ sees the divine essence with his bodily eye. But this does not hold together; which is clear, first from the Scriptural text which is mentioned here, because he would not say, blessed are the clean of heart, but, ‘blessed are they who have clean and pure eyes.’ So he gives one to understand that he will not see except with the heart, i.e., the intellect, for heart is taken this way: the eyes of your heart enlightened (Eph 1:18). Second, because the sense of a body can only attain to its own object; but if it be said that then it will have a greater power, one should say that then it would not be bodily vision, because the bodily eye sees only colors, and sees the essence per accidens, according to Augustine, in the last book of The City of God (22.29). Just as when I see something living, we can say that I see life, insofar as I see certain indications by which its life is pointed out to me, so it will be in the divine vision, because the reflection of God in the new heaven and the new earth and the glorified bodies will be so great that by it we will be said to see God as though with the bodily eyes. Therefore, blessed are the clean of heart.

He resolves the text, no man has ever seen God (1 John 4:12), in three ways. First, that it will not be by a comprehensive vision; second, not with bodily eyes; third, not in this life: because if it were given to someone to see God in this life, this would be because he is entirely estranged and lifted above the bodily senses. And this is why he said, blessed are the clean of heart; because just as the eye seeing color must be free from impurities, so it is with the mind seeing God; think of the Lord in goodness, and seek him in simplicity of heart. For he is found by those who tempt him not: and he shows himself to those who have faith in him (Wis 1:1), for the heart is purified by faith. Purifying their hearts by faith (Acts 15:9). And because vision follows upon faith, therefore it is said, for they will see God.

435. Blessed are the clean of heart, namely those who have a general cleanness from unworthy thoughts, by which their heart is a holy temple of God, in which they see God by contemplating; for ‘temple’ seems to be said from ‘contemplating.’ But in a particular way, blessed are the clean of heart, i.e., those who have cleanness of body; for nothing so impedes spiritual contemplation as uncleanness of body does. They obtain peace and holiness, without which no one will see God (Heb 12:14).

And therefore, some say that the moral virtues, especially chastity, advance one toward the contemplative life. And according to this, blessed are the clean of heart can be understood as about the vision in this life; for the saints who have a heart filled by justice see more excellently than some who see through bodily effects, for to the degree that effects are closer to God, to that degree God is more known through them. Hence the saints, who have justice, charity, and other such effects, which are most like God, know more than others. O taste, and see that the Lord is sweet (Ps 34:8).

436. Blessed are the peacemakers: for they will be called children of God. Here the seventh beatitude is set down; and, as was said, the virtues which dispose one to what is best dispose one to two things, namely to the vision of God and to love. And just as cleanness of heart disposes one to the vision of God, so peace disposes one to the love of God, by which we are called and are sons of God; and thus it disposes one to the love of neighbor, because, for he who loves not his brother, whom he sees, how can he love God, whom he does not see? (1 John 4:20).

437. And one should note that two rewards of beatitude are set down here, namely blessed are the peacemakers and blessed are the clean of heart. And all the preceding beatitudes are reduced to these two, and these are the effects of all the preceding. For what is caused by poverty of spirit, by mourning, by meekness, except that one has a clean heart? What by justice and mercy, except that we have peace? And the work of justice will be peace, and the service of justice quietness, and security for ever (Isa 32:17).

438. Blessed therefore are the peacemakers. But one should see what peace is, and how we can arrive at it.

Peace is the tranquillity of order. Now, order is the arrangement allotting the proper place to equals and unequals. Therefore peace resides in this, that all hold their own places. Hence the mind of man ought first to be subject to God. Second, the motions and inferior powers which are common to us and the brutes should be subject to man, for man has dominion over the animals by reason; let us make man to our image and likeness: and let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and the fowls of the air, and the beasts, and the whole earth, and every creeping creature that moves upon the earth (Gen 1:26). Third, that a man have peace toward others, because thus he will be entirely ordered.

However, this ordering can only exist in holy men; much peace have they who love your law (Ps 119:165); there is no peace to the wicked (Isa 48:22), for they cannot have interior peace. They lived in a great war of ignorance, they call so many and such great evils peace (Wis 14:22). Such peace the world cannot give; not as the world gives, do I give unto you (John 14:27). Similarly, all this is not enough, but they ought to make peace among those who quarrel; joy follows those who take counsels of peace (Prov 12:20).

Nevertheless, one should know that this peace is begun here, but not perfected, because no one can have the animal movements entirely subject to reason; but I see another law in my members, fighting against the law of my mind, and captivating me in the law of sin, that is in my members (Rom 7:23). Hence true peace will be in eternal life; in peace in the same I will sleep, and I will rest (Ps 4:9); and the peace of God, which surpasses all understanding (Phil 4:7).

439. For they will be called children of God, for three reasons. The first is because they have the duty of a son of God, for the Son is said to have come into the world for this purpose, that he might gather together the scattered; for he is our peace (Eph 2:14); making peace through the blood of his cross, both as to the things that are on earth, and the things that are in heaven (Col 1:20). Second, because through peace with charity one arrives at the eternal kingdom, in which all will be called sons of God; behold how they are numbered among the children of God, and their lot is among the saints (Wis 5:5). Careful to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace (Eph 4:3).Third, because a man is made like God by this, because where there is peace, there is no resistance; but no one can resist God. Who has resisted him, and has had peace? (Job 9:4).

440. And one should note that these beatitudes add onto one another. For it is greater to obtain mercy than to have one’s fill, because to have one’s fill is to complete what is proportioned to oneself, but mercy goes beyond oneself. Similarly, not all who receive mercy are admitted by the king to see the king. Similarly, it is more to be a son of the king than to see the king.

441. And yet one should know that by all these beatitudes one reward is designated.

But why did the Lord will to signify it through many things this way?

One should say that all things which are divided in lower things are brought together in higher things. And since in human affairs those things are found scattered about, and we are led by the hand through sensible things, for this reason the Lord signified the eternal reward through many things.

442. Now, this seventh beatitude is adapted to the gift of wisdom, for wisdom makes men to be sons of God.

One should note likewise that peace is placed in the seventh beatitude, just as rest in the seventh day (Gen 2:2).

443. Next is set down the eighth beatitude, which indicates the perfection of all the preceding beatitudes; for a man is perfect in all these things when he does not give up at all because of afflictions. The furnace tries the potter’s vessels, and the trial of affliction just men (Sir 27:6). Blessed therefore are they who suffer persecution.

But perhaps someone hearing blessed are the peacemakers would say that these men are not blessed on account of persecution, because persecution disturbs peace, or takes it away entirely. But certainly not interior peace, but exterior peace; much peace have they that love your law (Ps 119:165).

Now, the persecution itself does not make one blessed, but the cause of the persecution; hence he says, for justice’s sake; but if also you suffer any thing for justice’s sake, blessed are you (1 Pet 3:14). Chrysostom: he does not say, ‘from the pagans and for the faith,’ but for justice’s sake. (Thomas Aquinas in the Catena aurea 5.10 ascribes this quote to a Pseudo-Chrysostom, Phil. 3:2:3.)

444. The prophets were killed, not because they denied the faith, but because they announced the truth; John the Baptist was killed because he announced the truth, and he was a martyr.

And it should be noted that this beatitude is set down in the eighth place, just as circumcision, in which a certain general circumcision of martyrs is foretold, also happened on the eighth day.

445. For theirs is the kingdom (Matt 5:10). This seems to be the same as what is said in the first beatitude, hence it is explained in several ways by the saints. For certain people say that it is the same thing to say blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Matt 5:3), and this one is for the sake of indicating the perfection of patience, as in James (Jas 1:4). But perfection is always indicated by the fact that it returns to its own beginning, as appears in a circle. Similarly, someone who suffers persecution for justice’s sake is poor and is due all things, for he is meek (Matt 5:4) and merciful (Matt 5:5), and so on with all of them. And therefore, not only the first reward is owed to him, but all rewards. Others say that it is not the same thing; hence Ambrose says that it refers to the kingdom of heaven as to the glory of the soul and body; for the kingdom of heaven corresponds to the virtue of the soul, but the beatitude corresponds to martyrdom which consists in the glorification of bodies because of the punishments they have suffered. Or it can be another way: the kingdom of heaven is promised to the poor in hope, because they do not immediately carry it off, but to the martyrs in reality, because they do carry it off immediately.