Chapter I. Presbyterianism

THE first "General Assembly" of "the Reformed Church of Scotland " met in 1560, shaped and inspired by the violent genius of John Knox, the apostate priest Since those days the history of Presbyterianism has plunged into a maze of intricacy and complications, which there would be no use in attempting to disentangle from the historical point of view; yet, on the whole, it may be said that, at least until recently, the almost countless divisions in organization have had little or nothing to do with doctrinal differences. The dogmatic scheme of Presbyterianism has survived, very much on its original lines, in spite of the numerous breaches in communion that have developed, and are still open to development, on comparatively secondary matters.

At the present day there are five Presbyterian bodies that may be said to represent between them the general tradition of reformed Scottish religion.

( I ) The Established Church. —This body, historical ly speaking, may be described as the most direct descendant of the original stock and in no way can be de scribed as " Nonconformist ". It is as old, practically speaking, as the Church of England, and in many ways resembles it. Its main divergence, however, in doctrine lies in its acceptance of presbyteral, instead of episcopal, succession and government. Politically, too, it occupies a parallel position to that of the Church of England, united as it is with the State, as the official Church. Its ministers occupy recognized positions, secured to them by the direct sanction of law; and from their number are selected chaplains to ^Sovereign, with definite duties towards him when he is resident in Scotland.

(2) The Original Seceders, the representatives of the old Covenanters, form an incredibly tiny body, yet surrounded by great historical interest. In spite of their small numbers they possess a complete and elaborate organization as intricate as that of any of the larger bodies.

(3) The United Free Church of Scotland, composed as it is at present of several bodies that have united in one, including one comparatively ancient stock, stands for the principle of freedom from the State, especially in the reconstruction of formularies and the conduct of " Church Courts" and the liberty of the congregation to appoint its own minister without external interference. It is this body that is on the whole most before the world, owing to its theological and literary activity, and its endeavour to keep abreast of the movement of the times. The Established Church on the other hand, while enjoying official prestige, has been distinguished rather for its external organization and its social and parochial activity, than for its theologians and thinkers. It is the " United Free" too, which has been most affected by modern thought, and which, while at present impervious to the " New Theology,' contains distinguished leaders — particularly among the younger men — who desire to see it representative of various schools of thought, from the old Calvinism to the modern " Broad Church " point of view.

(4) The Free Presbyterians, and (5) the Free Church have their strongholds in the conservative Highlands, and stand for that more or less absolute Calvinism with which the Presbyterian movement began, and on which it is officially founded. A good idea of their precise and somewhat narrow theology may be gained from such a book as Hodge's " Outlines of Theology ".

2. It has been already remarked that there is little or no difference between the doctrinal positions of these various bodies. The " Westminster Confession " is at present the basis of the entire Presbyterian creed, and this Confession is distinctly Calvinistic in its essence. Yet, while Calvinism is the foundation, there are various senses in which this is interpreted. The " Free Presbyterians " and the " Free Church," for example, adhere to it more or less in its literal sense; the " United Free " interpret it more liberally, and can scarcely be said to pledge themselves to every statement in the "Westminster Confession" in its plain and original meaning; they assent to it rather in the same manner in which most Anglicans interpret the Thirty-nine Articles, as containing the essence of the truth and its general outline only. An example perhaps of that which is most characteristic in Calvinism — viz., the dogma concerning Predestination — may illustrate the position.

Calvin taught that God's predestination of souls to eternal life is of such a character that the will of the individual is a negligible quantity. The eternal de crees are such as depend in no degree at all upon human effort. Those predestined to glory pass at some time in their earthly existence from death to life by what is known as " Justification " and, in spite of backsliding, are assured in the grace of final perseverance. Those predestined to eternal death are not so much predestined as simply left to themselves; and since, by original sin, man's nature is totally depraved no religious effort or emotion of these can be more than transient. Further, as held by the extreme Calvinists in Scotland, this predestination does not in any degree arise from God's foreknowledge of men's lives: He does not foreordain because He foreknows — this is dismissed as mere Arminianism — He foreknows because He has foreordained.

Many Presbyterians, however, do not hold this theory in its bare simplicity. They prefer, as do Catholics to regard the mysteries of the relations between will and grace as a mystery, and to leave it there, assured that no man can lose his soul except by his own fault. " We are all Calvinists when we pray: we are all Arminians when we work."

While Calvinism, therefore, is the official foundation of the Presbyterian creed, it would not be fair to assume that all Presbyterians are simply Calvinists.

3. It is necessary, however, to pass on and consider the Presbyterian creed as a whole.

(i) On the fundamental doctrines of the Blessed Trinity, the Incarnation, the Person of Christ, His Prophetic Office, His Sovereignty, and His Priest hood, the Presbyterian creed is practically orthodox. "Modernism" in its definitely dogmatic aspect has found no opening in Scotland. It may be said, indeed, that the Presbyterian teaching de Deo is profoundly reverent and Christian; and its reliance on Christ as the Divine Redeemer of the world is equally admirable. Practically all the intense hatred of Catholicism, so evident in the writings of the more precise and conservative school, arises from a conviction that certain Catholic doctrines, especially those concerning the priesthood, the Sacraments, the Sacrifice of the Mass, the treasury of merits and the intercession of Saints, derogate from the supreme and unique dignity of Christ. It is astonishing how great is this hatred and distrust of Catholicism. In the ordinary dogmatic treatises used by students for the ministry, very nearly as much space is given to the denunciation of " Romish " and " Popish errors " as to the setting forth of positive doctrines. In Dr. Hodge's book, for ex ample, already referred to, most questions are treated under three heads — the Romish, Lutheran and the " Reformed " doctrine; the first is usually dismissed as absurd or blasphemous; the second as mistaken; and the third expounded as orthodox and Scriptural. A very different spirit, however, is beginning to prevail; and, although, officially, the Catholic Church is still regarded, especially in the more conservative bodies, as the supreme enemy of pure religion, among the younger men a very surprising and pleasant sympathy is beginning to manifest itself.

(2) The Rule of Faith of the Presbyterian is the Bible and the Bible only. Tradition is entirely re jected as liable to corruption, and the sole fount of truth is to be found, it is claimed, in the written Word of God in which are all things necessary to be believed for salvation. It is the object of all theo logians, all Church courts dealing with heresy, and even of the laymen, to determine, Bible in hand, by the help of the " witness of the spirit " — that is " the religious sense of the prayerful man" — as to whether this or that doctrine can be "proved" or not, in so many words, from the sacred Scriptures. Yet this is not "Private Judgment" pure and simple. While traditional interpretations in the past are rejected, while there is not, as among Anglicans, any appeal to the "Primitive Christianity" of the first few cen turies as the final judge of the meaning of the Scrip tures, or to any Prayer Book — still less to any sense of the "Church" throughout the world — yet for all that a body of divinity has come into being, incorporated more or less in the Westminster Confession (which is assumed to be the true summary of Scripture) by which judgments are passed. Further, the Church courts supply the place of a Living Voice, by which those standards of doctrine are applied; and heresy-trials are therefore a real though now a very infrequent feature of Presbyterian life. Theoretically, of course, the system cannot stand for an instant, since no infallibility is claimed by those courts or this tradition, and, as has been already pointed out, a written infallible Revelatio^ deprived of a living infallible witness, ceases to be infallible. Yet, practically, Presbyterianism is a living, working and authoritative system, with a clear mind of its own, and a refreshing courageousness in proclaiming it. There is little or none of the Anglican instinct to sacrifice truth to peace.

All then is built professedly upon the Scriptures, and, accordingly, a great deal of sound orthodoxy is the result.

(3) The Presbyterian doctrine " de ecclesia " is a little hard to determine. It is not defined at all in the " Shorter Catechism," any more than in the Anglican Catechism; yet that " the Church " is believed to be one and visible is plain from the " Confession of Faith ". The visible Church universal is there declared to consist of " all those throughout the world that profess the true religion, together with their children, and (to be) the Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ, the house and family of God, out of which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation". Yet, no more than in the Anglican Catechism, are there any further precise marks by which it may be identified, no verifiable test of communion, no absolute final authority to which the will must submit. This " phenomenal " Church is also carefully distinguished in Presbyterian theology from g8 NON-CATHOLIC RELIGIONS OF ENGLAND the "true spiritual Church" (or, in Catholic phrase ology, the Communion of Saints).

Theoretically, then, the doctrine is unsatisfactory; and probably varying answers would be given, according to the liberality of those questioned, as to which, if any, Christian bodies organized on other than Presbyterian lines formed part of this "visible Church". Certainly the Anglicans (or " Episcopalians ") are so recognized. Their laity are received to communion without any renunciation being demanded from them, and their ministers to the Presbyterian ministry with out reordination. Similar concessions have been frequently made on the Anglican side; the most famous of which perhaps is that in the case of Hooker, a very eminent Anglican divine, who on his deathbed made his confession to Saravia whose orders were Presbyterian. It is common, too, that Anglican bishops, clergy and laity should in Scotland attend Presbyterian services; and the King is, constitutionally, an Anglican in England, and a Presbyterian in Scotland. All this is, however, fiercely deplored by the Anglican High Churchmen.

Practically, then, the doctrine seems to amount to this — that the visible Church of Christ throughout the world consists of those bodies living in external com munions organized on broad lines for Christian worship; Protestants generally, who hold in the main the fundamental doctrines of the Apostles' Creed, come under this category; Catholics, owing to the corrupt and blasphemous version of the truth held by them, do not. Such seems to be the view of the narrower

Presbyterian, for whom, of course, his own Church appears to be the most Scriptural and correct.

(4) The Presbyterian doctrine as regards the ministry is, on its negative side, clear enough. There is nothing, it is held, in the Church of Christ that can be in any sense called sacerdotalism. There is but one Priest, Jesus Christ, whose priesthood so far as it is represented on earth, is extended to all believers equally.1 There is no sacrifice, save the Sacrifice of the Cross, finished once for all; no earthly altar, and no earthly priest.

On the positive side the doctrine is more difficult to determine. Certainly there is a great reverence for the ministry, and a deep appreciation of the value of a certain kind of historical descent, even to such a degree as to the admiration of the "historic Episcopate," though coupled with a denial of its Scriptural origin. Ordination is a grave and solemn ceremony, during which the hands of all ministers present are laid upon the head of the candidate. Further, it is believed, at least by many, that ordination is a definite act of God conferring something resembling even the "character" of Holy Order itself. Yet it is utterly denied that supernatural powers are so conferred, be yond, perhaps, such as result from the blessing of God upon the natural powers of His chosen minister. There is nothing, in a word, done by a minister in the fulfilment of his office which a layman, in case of need, could not also do. The solution of these apparent con tradictions seems to lie in the belief that such powers as Christ has transmitted to men are held all together

1 Cf. " Low Churchmen," p. 67.

ioo NON-CATHOLIC RELIGIONS OF ENGLAND by the " Church," who appoints persons to act for her and exercise those powers. Normally, they are so exercised by ministers, consecrated and set apart: in extreme cases they can be used effectively by any person acting as her representative. In spite, then, of the reverence for the ministry and the value placed upon the historical descent through the " presbytery " to each minister — a descent that is undoubtedly historical from Reformation days — no doctrine is held approximating to that of Apostolical Succession, or to that of the supernatural powers and character con ferred upon the priest.

(5) As regards the relations of the individual soul to God, and the means by which grace is received, it may be said, in a word, that Justification by faith only, at the time of conversion, is the official doctrine of the Presbyterians; this " forensic " external act is invariably accompanied by " Regeneration," an internal change wrought in the soul. Sanctification is sharply distinguished from the two as the process by which, after the soul has "embraced Christ," and had His merits " imputecf " to herself and become " regenerate," * she is led on in the path of holiness towards perfection. Strictly speaking, the Calvinistic doctrine of Justification, no less than that of Predestination, gives an opening immediately to Antinomianism. If it be true that the elect soul, who has once " embraced Christ," has His merits " imputed " to her, in such a sense as that she

1 " A judicial act of God, declaring the believer to be forensically just, on the ground of the righteousness of Christ made his by imputation "(" Outlines of Theol.": cf. pp. 496-512).

is counted by God as completely clothed by Christ's Righteousness whatever her sins may be — and that o that " Justification " is a final and irreversible Divine act the conclusion is inevitable that she need no longer observe the moral law. Even from the point of view of personal immunity from punishment she need have no grave fears, since at death, it is believed, the process of sanctification is completed instantaneously, and she passes at once to the enjoyment of the Beatific Vision. Yet, practically, except in cases of tremendous religious excitement — when, for instance, the believer is induced by imagination and memory to rest merely upon the past emotional crisis through which "Justification" was consummated — Antinomianism does not exist. While " works " have no part in the process of " Justification," yet they are believed to be the practically necessary consequence of it. Sanctification, in common judgment, is the soundest test as to whether the " Justification " was real and final, and is the normal and usual process following upon conversion.

This process, then, is carried on by God's grace given through Jesus Christ, and comes to the soul in many ways, although always directly from Christ with out any intermediary. Preaching is an occasion of this grace's coming (as it may also be an occasion of Justification, Regeneration and the whole State of Adoption which is the simultaneous result); so is prayer; so are Bible-reading and the sacraments. Yet none of these ordinances are necessary to salvation, though they cannot be neglected without risk, since they are the divinely appointed occasions — rather than real channels — of grace. All that can be obtained through them, can be obtained without them, by the direct access of the soul to Christ.

Baptism, then, and the Lords Supper are believed to be ordinances of Christ " wherein, by sensible signs, Christ, and the benefits of the new covenant, are re presented, sealed, and applied to believers".1 Further they " become effectual means of salvation, not from any virtue in them, or in him that doth administer them, but only from the blessing of Christ, and the working of His Spirit in them that by faith receive them".1

Now this is Protestantism pure and simple. There is nothing here of the suggestion of Catholic doctrine contained in the Anglican Catechism. The sacra ments " seal and signify," but they do not convey the actualities for which they stand: they are means of grace — but not in themselves; they are rather the occasions concerning which Christ has revealed that upon their performance He will act directly upon the soul through His own Divine Power. "They convey the grace they signify to those for whom that grace is intended, and who are in a proper spiritual state to receive it, ' as a key conveys admission, a deed an estate'."2 In a word, the doctrine amounts to Virtualism. Let that be applied to the sacraments in particular.

(i) Baptism administered usually by sprinkling only,

2 "Outlines of Theology," p. 592, edit. 1896.

with the words " I baptise thee into the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost," is given either to adults who manifest faith, or to the children of faithful parents, on those parents' faith. Sponsors are not accepted in their stead, except where parents are unavailable or evidently unsuitable. Now Presbyterians do not hold that the action of Baptism confers regeneration, or justification, or adoption. It is rather the " seal," the sign given in the external world of God's relation to souls, and, it is to be hoped, to this soul in particular. Only time, however, can show whether such a soul is in the favour of God or not.

(2) The Lords Supper, of which the ceremonial will be described presently, is in like manner administered only to the faithful — to those, that is, who are recog nized as having given evidences of justification and faith. It is not believed that there is any real Presence of Christ's Body and Blood — yet, at the same time, "the worthy receivers are, not after a corporal and carnal manner, but by faith, made partakers of His body and blood, with all His benefits, to their spiritual nourishment and growth in grace ".* There is, then, it is said, a certain " influence" received in the Sacrament from Christ's Human Nature, existing, as it does, only on the Right Hand of the Father; yet this is " mystical, not physical," and is conditioned by the faith of the recipient.

Of other Sacraments in the Presbyterian system of thought there are none. Penance is only represented so far as may be by the admission to and exclusion from Church membership — a custom that once meant a considerable ordeal to the applicant, required as he was to answer searching questions concerning his own spiritual state. And this occasionally involved a public confession and a formal rebuke of sin, as has been customary from time to time in certain other Protestant bodies. Matrimony is not regarded as a Sacrament, nor is there the smallest objection to the re-marriage of divorced persons in the lifetime of their respective partners. Signs of penitence, however, would be required from the " guilty " party before the blessing of the Church would be granted. The theology of the matter, however, is not formulated officially; and it may be said that the state of matrimony is regarded as a mere contract, permitted and blessed by God, yet under the jurisdiction of the civil rather than of the ecclesiastical power. Confirmation is unrecognized as having been instituted by Christ: Extreme Unction exists in no shape or form.

4. Such then, roughly stated in outline, is the Presbyterian Creed so far as it is officially promulgated. It is characterized by its marked Protestantism, con sisting as it does of a scheme of thought, presented almost scholastically, concerning the relations of the individual soul to God, secondary to which come the ordinances and the rites of the Church, the ministry and the Church itself. Preaching, therefore, as in the case of the Low Church party among the Anglicans, is, so to speak, the main " Ministry of the Gospel," for by preaching the faithful are instructed in the very elaborate scheme of redemption — the eternal covenant by which the sins of men are "imputed" to Christ, and the merits of Christ to the sinner — an elaborate scheme in which "Justification" is the first step, ac companied by "Regeneration," Adoption is the net result, and " Sanctification " the ensuing process: by preaching again the "justified" are encouraged and led on in the path of holiness. All sacraments, cere monies and rites, then, are secondary to this; they " signify and seal " the effects of the interior process rather than themselves effect them.

5. Of the ceremonial of the Presbyterians it is difficult to give an exact account, since there is no official book directing this. It is a matter of custom rather than of rule; and such ceremonial as is used Is as simple and unofficial as possible.

The dress of the minister on all public occasions, in preaching as well as in the administration of the sacra ments, consists of cassock, Geneva gown, bands, and occasionally the University hood. The furniture of the church consists of pews, centring towards the pulpit, which occupies the place of honour, and from which the service is mainly conducted. Only in the case of the Administration of the Lord's Supper, and in the actual performance of Baptism does the minister descend. The Communion table is a movable structure, often of magnificently carved wood, unadorned by any thing except occasionally flowers, either standing in front of the pulpit, or moved in when need requires. The Communion is celebrated four times in the year, after the morning service, and, in town churches at any rate, is usually repeated again in the afternoon, for the benefit of those who cannot attend in the morning.

An account of the kind of ceremonial used, and the order of service employed may perhaps be given with advantage. Details vary in various churches; the minister is in no way bound to one method rather than another; yet the tendency is to follow some such plan as the following.

The ordinary morning service, lasting an hour and a half, begins with a sentence or two of Holy Scripture, such as those prescribed in the Anglican Prayer Book, invoking the presence and blessing of God. This is followed by a paraphrased psalm in rhyme, sung by the whole congregation standing. In nearly all churches at the present time an organ is used, al though in the Highlands there is still a strong prejudice against the use of any instrument in divine service. The prayer then offered by the minister is practically always extempore, but it is generally prepared beforehand, and includes acts of adoration, confession, thanksgiving and petition. The people sit for prayer, leaning forward only during its recital. After another " paraphrase " a piece of Scripture is read by the minister; occasionally two are read, following the Anglican custom of the two lessons, one from each Testament. This reading is sometimes followed by a simple address to the children that are present; and some idea is given to these of the lines on which the sermon will presently be delivered. A hymn is then sung, followed by further prayer, usually of an intercessory character, which is again followed by the giving out of Church notices, and the collection of alms, during which a voluntary is played upon the organ. The sermon is then preached, lasting about half an hour; and the service is brought to a conclusion by another short prayer, a hymn, and the benediction.

The celebration of the Lord's Supper which, as has been said, four times in the year follows the morning service, is of the same simple and informal character. This, too, is almost entirely directed at the discretion of the minister; but this too tends to follow certain customary lines. A typical description may be given as follows.

The Communion Table is placed ready beneath the pulpit, covered with a white cloth, as are all the fronts of the pews in which the intending communicants are seated. (This custom is without doubt a survival of the "houselling cloth" still in use among Catholics.) Upon the Table stand two large silver plates containing each a loaf, from which the crust has been removed, cut into slices, rearranged again in loaf form; and tall silver Communion cups filled with ordinary port-wine. (In a few churches unfermented "wine" is used in deference to temperance principles; and in yet fewer small glasses, one for each communicant, are substituted for the cups. This last, however, is a complete innovation and has made very little way.) These loaves are at the beginning of the service themselves veiled in white cloths.

The service begins by the delivery of an exhortation by the minister, standing at the Table, facing the people over it. It is interesting to observe that this address is sometimes a compilation from ancient liturgies as well as of Scriptural passages. Towards the close of the exhortation occasionally read from a manuscript book, the minister taking a portion of the bread into his hands, begins to recite the passage corresponding to the Qui pridie in the Mass. At the words " He gave thanks," an extempore thanksgiving is offered, and the bread replaced. There follows the almost cere monial breaking of the bread, and the recital of the words: " This is My body which is given for you. This do in remembrance of Me."

There follows the distribution of the bread, first to the assistant ministers and the elders, and then, by the hands of the elders to the people. Each communicant sitting in his place breaks off and puts into his own mouth a small fragment of one of the slices. When this is done the minister taking up one of the cups re cites the passage corresponding to the Postquam ccenatum est, and repeats as before the corresponding words for the blessing, " This is My Blood which is shed for you. Do this as often as ye shall drink it in remembrance of Me," with some such addition as " forasmuch as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do show the Lord's death till He come". Occasion ally even the Domine non sum dignus, practically translated word for word from the missal, is intro duced somewhere into the devotions before Communion. Then after the cups have been handed round in the same manner as the bread, the service is ended by a short devotional address, a hymn and the bene diction.

6. Such is the type of service customary among all the Presbyterian denominations, though following precedent, rather than being prescribed by any fixed tradition, still less a rule. A certain amount of latitude therefore is open to the minister; and in this connex ion a few observations must be made.

In recent years Presbyterianism has seen to a slight extent the growth and development of a movement corresponding in some degree to that of the Tractarian revival in England. It has not yet reached consider able dimensions, and it is doubtful as to whether it will ever do so. Its adherents, though numbering among them, perhaps, half a dozen well-known names, have scarcely yet reached the dignity of a " school of thought," and certainly have not yet, as a whole, affected their brethren very deeply. It is not, therefore, necessary to describe their tenets in detail; and yet it may be as well to indicate shortly in what direction they are moving.

The direction is, without doubt, Tractarian. It is an attempt to claim a real continuity with the PreReformation Church, to identify the ministry with the Catholic priesthood in essentials, to teach some kind of sacrificial doctrine connected with the celebration of the Lord's Supper, and real sacramental doctrine in reference both to that rite and to that of Baptism. There has, too, been more than one case before the Church courts with regard to ceremonial, in one in stance involving a charge against a minister of having sought to suggest that the Communion Table was in effect an " altar," by the placing of a cross upon it at no NON-CATHOLIC RELIGIONS OF ENGLAND the time of administration. One minister, too, at least, went so far as to begin to instruct his people on the subject of the intercession of saints and the value of prayers for the dead. At the same time, while such teachers repudiate the necessity of Episcopacy for the transmission of Orders, they teach a real " Apostolical Succession " through the " laying on of the hands of the presbytery," and claim historical precedent for this doctrine in the case of the Catholics at Alexandria, with regard to whom it is certainly difficult to demonstrate that distinction of the Episcopate and the priest hood now held by the Church.

It is extraordinarily interesting that such a movement as this should be possible among those whose Protestantism is of such a clear and unwavering type. Among the Anglicans, while it is true that from the days of Queen Anne down to the Tractarian revival the outward ceremonial and current doctrine resembled very closely that of the Presbyterians, there was at least the implicit, though disregarded, witness in the Prayer Book to a certain thin thread of Catholic doc trine. It is not so surprising therefore that a " Catholic revival " should at some period among the Anglicans make itself felt. But that it should be possible among the Presbyterians, whose system, originally founded upon the Calvinistic Westminster Confession, has been handed down since by a tradition unwaveringly Protestant and anti-prelatical, is a startling phenomenon. It points to the fact that even in the most rigidly anti-Catholic community — such as was that of the Scottish bodies — it is possible for principles to survive, though

PRESBYTERIANISM HI unspoken, and even verbally repudiated, which in more liberal and genial times can bear unexpected fruit.

7. So far the account that has been given of Presbyterian ism has been systematic, doctrinal and cere monial, rather than descriptive. It may be as well to approach the matter now rather from the outside, and to make a few general remarks upon the main character of Scottish religion.

(i) Its dogmatic system is a scheme of thought rising from, and supported by, the head rather than the heart. It is, like all systems that base their roots in Calvinism, severely logical and argumentative. The relations between God and the soul are legal in character, rather than filial. The system of salvation is represented in the older text-books, at least, as a strict covenant instituted between God and man, with conditions, grounds, qualifying clauses and even "legal fictions". And although all this leads to what are called " filial " relations between God and man, although the New Covenant is wholly gratuitous on God's part, arising from His willingness to " impute " to His Son the sins of men who accept the Covenant; yet even those who accept it do so from the force of the Eternal Decrees rather than from that of grace acting upon a will that freely corresponds with it. There is a certain appearance of grudgingness and severe justice, even upon the face of God's mercy.

(2) Two results to character inevitably follow, so far as the old spirit of Presbyterianism still holds ground. First, the Presbyterian lies terribly open to ii2 NON-CATHOLIC RELIGIONS OF ENGLAND the assaults of scrupulousness. In times of spiritual darkness there is always the gaunt possibility present to his mind that he has been mistaken as to his own election. There are no external acts of God through the sacramental system open for his consolation. He cannot, by a fervent and sincere confession, for ex ample, met by the grace of absolution, cast himself once more upon the mercy of God, and satisfy himself that he is in the enjoyment of God's favour.

Secondly, such a system of thought tends to make its adherents, without distinction, amateur theologians. Since so much depends upon the exact conditions of God's Covenant, it is above all things necessary to be accurately acquainted with these conditions. " Implicit faith" in the sense of faith in a Divine authority and, consequently in all that that Authority teaches, is re jected as unworthy of intelligent beings. Such, it is said, is no faith at all, since faith must rest on know ledge. The psychological result therefore is certain: there is the danger, on the one side, of scrupulousness, and on the other of a mere head-religion. If so much depends on precise conditions, and on the know ledge of them on the part of those who would benefit by them, either the professor tends to be too anxious about them, or he tends to rely too much on his technical knowledge. Scrupulousness and laxity are of course dangers common to all Christians; but it would seem as if the Presbyterian — as indeed history seems to show — has lain peculiarly open to them. The recent change, however, that has passed over the Presbyterian religion, has tended greatly to modify these dangers, and to substitute for them, as elsewhere, a kind of sentimental optimism.

(3) Such, however, as can keep their balance are, of course, in one sense, fine and self-controlled char acters. Presbyterianism has a real dignity about it, owing to its realization of the Sovereign Majesty of God, the doctrine of which is so intimately connected with the foundations of the faith. It is, in this sense, a. refreshing contrast to certain other Protestant schools of thought, in which a vague benevolence is substituted for the Love and Justice of God, and an incoherent Universalism for the Eternal decrees. A very real and solid piety therefore — rising from this deep reverence towards the Creator as well as from an intimate personal relation with the Divine Redeemer — is distinctly characteristic of Presbyterianism at its best. There are a few outstanding books of Presbyterian devotion, to which so far as regards a love of the Sacred Humanity and a sense of the creature's absolute dependence and reliance upon the Creator, it would be difficult to find parallels outside Catholic literature.

(4) Such well-hammered systems as this, must, of course, produce a by-product of superstition, and Presbyterianism is no exception. These superstitions are to be found centring chiefly round the observance of Sunday, which has been transferred, it would seem almost bodily from the worst days of the Pharisaic traditions of the Sabbath. The " Shorter Catechism " sums up in a manner appalling to the imagination the ideal Presbyterian "Lord's Day".

" The Sabbath is to be sanctified by a holy resting 8 all that day, even from such worldly employments and recreations as are lawful on other days; and spending the whole time in the public and private exercises of God's worship, except so much as is to be taken up in the works of necessity and mercy."

Other superstitions, among the more precise con gregations, may be found in indifferent matters of religious etiquette, and in the endeavour to dispense, ritually, with ritual.

(5) Finally, it must be remembered that to a very large extent, " liberalism " is at last beginning to prevail among Presbyterians, especially in the denomination known as the " United Free Church of Scotland ". It is difficult to say exactly how far this has extended in the past, or how far it will extend in the future. It concerns, firstly, the dogmatic ideas on which Presbyterianism was originally founded, modifying it now to such a degree that a practical Arminianism rather than a dogmatic Calvinism is the prevailing complexion of the thought of the younger men; and secondly the whole subject of Biblical Criticism. The works of the various German schools are freely studied, and their conclusions taught; and, unless the teachers can somehow manage to link themselves on to some living Christian tradition — either to the Catholic tradition itself or to some new line of thought such as is being gradually evolved by the Broad Church party in Eng land — it is difficult to see what authoritative Rule of Faith will ultimately remain as the foundation of belief. Liberalism, however, has not yet among the Presby terians even begun to approach the teachings of the

' New Theology," whose professors indeed are looked down upon by the more solid students of Presbyterian theology, as mere innovators and amateurs.

It is not necessary to make many remarks, in addition to the foregoing, on the manner in which Pres byterians may be best approached by Catholics, for, except in the case of individuals, anything like a movement on the part of Presbyterians towards the Church, is at present inconceivable. It may seem strange, but it would appear, at least on the surface, as if in the spread of " liberalism " among those com munities, especially as regards the Sacred Scriptures, lies the best hope of Catholicism. If it can but be perceived that the Scriptures, though inspired, cannot, from their very structure and the circumstances of their composition, have been intended by God as a complete and accessible statement of Revelation, it may be hoped that the living and vital tradition of the Catholic Church, including the inspiration of the Scriptures so far as that has been defined, may occur to many minds as at least affording a possibility in the direction of a final Rule of Faith.

In the meanwhile a few suggestions may be made with regard to dealing with individuals.

(i) It must be remembered that the Presbyterian is, characteristically, a man of thought and reflection. The metaphysically inclined Scottish character has been developed through three centuries by a system of belief that at least demands theological thinking. The Scotsman, so far as he retains the impress of his n6 NON-CATHOLIC RELIGIONS OF ENGLAND old religion, is precise, logical, meditative and well informed.

(2) It must be remembered that the Presbyterian is rigidly orthodox as regards the Being and the attri butes of God, the Divinity of our Lord, and the Person, and (within limits) the Office of God the Holy Ghost. He has further, as has been said, a strongly developed sense of the Sovereignty of God, and a capacity there fore for a real and deep spiritual humility. Yet he may be, simultaneously, intellectually proud.

(3) Up to a certain point he is rigidly orthodox as regards the Atonement, the Sacrifice of the Cross, and the power of the Precious Blood. It is in the application of the graces flowing from the Death of Christ, especially through the Sacraments, that he goes utterly astray. It is not so much positively, as negatively, that he is at fault. A certain amount of his theology concerning the direct action of grace upon the soul — (and regarded by the Catholic as given by God through such means as the " Baptism of desire," and " spiritual communion") — is also orthodox. It is rather in his ignorance of the sacraments than in his positive asser tions about grace that he is at fault. Even in respect to his doctrine of " Justification by Faith " he is not so completely astray as might appear at first sight; for, while technically and dogmatically heretical, he yet is apt practically so to regard works as the necessary accompaniment of saving faith as very nearly to satisfy the Catholic dogma. As regards the Church his beliefs bear very little resemblance at all, even considered as merely parallel to the Catholic faith. For him, as for

PRESBYTERIANISM n?

the Anglican Low Churchman, the " Church " is the result of the incorporation of individuals, rather than the Mother of whom souls are born, and to whom they look for light and grace.

(4) Finally, then, the Presbyterian should be treated with real respect. He has a system, logical and well digested so far as it goes, and almost scholastic in its presentment. He is usually well acquainted with his faith, and capable of defending it. It is built upon foundations taken from the Scriptures. It is very far removed indeed from the loose and incoherent systems of more modern days, and it produces admirable re sults, so far as it goes, of conscientiousness and solid piety. His anti-Catholic bias, amounting even to violence of language redolent of the sixteenth century, arises almost wholly from the tradition of his fathers, and is built chiefly upon a complete misapprehension of the Catholic Church and her doctrines. And even that bias is, apparently, beginning to dissolve.