Article 3 — Whether spiritual creatures can work miracles by their natural power

The third point of inquiry is whether spiritual creatures can work miracles by their natural power. (Parallel texts: ST I.110.2‒4; I.65.4; I.91.2; I.94.4; SCG III.102‒3; De malo, q. 16, a. 9; a. 1, ad 14; q. 16, a. 10; Quodlibet IX, q. 4, a. 5; Commentary on Galatians, ch. 3, lect. 1; Compendium theologiae, ch. 136; Letter to Bassiano of Lodi on the 36 Articles, aa. 15, 16, 18; Commentary on the Gospel of John, ch. 10, lect. 5; Commentary on Job, ch. 1, lect. 3.)

Obj. 1: And seemingly, they can. For, that which can be done by a lower power can a fortiori be done by a higher power. Now, the power of a spiritual creature surpasses that of a corporeal creature; thus, it is written: there is no power upon earth that can be compared with him (Job 41:24). Therefore, a spiritual creature can produce the same effects as nature. But when a natural effect is produced not by a natural but by a hidden cause, it is a miracle. Therefore, the spiritual creature can work miracles.

Obj. 2: The more actual a thing is, the more is it active, inasmuch as activity is in proportion to actuality. Now, the forms that are in rational creatures are more actual than the forms which are in corporeal creatures, because they are more immaterial. Consequently, they are more active. But the forms that are in a corporeal nature produce their like in nature. Much more, therefore, are the forms in the mind of a spiritual creature capable of doing this, so a rational creature can produce natural effects without natural causes, and this is a miracle.

Obj. 3: An angel’s intelligence is more akin to the divine intelligence than a man’s is. Now, in the human intelligence there are active forms residing in the practical intellect, such as the forms of art. Much more, then, are these active forms in an angel’s intelligence, inasmuch as it is evident that the ideas in the divine intellect are supremely active.

Obj. 4: It might be said that the active forms in the angelic mind are employed in the production of effects by means of a corporeal agent in the same way as forms in the human mind are.

On the contrary, any power that cannot come into action except by means of a corporeal instrument is uselessly bestowed on one who has no bodily organs; for the power of locomotion would be useless to an animal unless it had the means to move. But an angel has no body naturally united to him. Therefore, its power needs no corporeal agent in order to do its work.

Obj. 5: Any power whose action exceeds that of its organ can perform some actions without that organ; for because the eye is not equal to the power of the entire soul, the soul performs many actions without the eye. Now, a body cannot be in proportion to the whole power of an angel. Therefore, an angel can produce certain effects without employing corporeal agents; and thus, it seems that it can work miracles by the power of its nature.

Obj. 6: An angel’s power surpasses all corporeal power more than the body of the heavens surpasses the elementary bodies. Now, certain effects are produced in this lower world by the power of the heavenly body, independently of the actions of the active and passive qualities that are the forces proper to the elements. Much more, then, can certain effects be produced in nature by the power of an angel without the mediation of the powers of natural bodies.

Obj. 7: According to Augustine, all bodies are governed by God through the rational spirit of life, (Augustine, On the Trinity 4.5 (PL 42:326–28).) and Gregory says the same, (Gregory the Great, Dialogues 4.6 (PL 77:328–32).) so it seems that the movements of the heavens and of all nature are from the angels, just as the movement of the human body is from the soul. Now, the soul impresses forms in the body independently of the natural active powers of the body; thus, a mere imagination makes a man grow hot or cold, or become feverish or even leprous, according to physicians. A fortiori, then, it is possible that by the mere concept of the angel who moves the heavens certain effects be produced in this lower world without the action of natural causes; and thus, an angel can work a miracle.

Obj. 8: It will be said, perhaps, that this is due to the fact that the soul is the form of the body, whereas an angel is not the form of a corporeal creature.

On the contrary, whatever effects result from the soul’s operation arise from the soul as a mover [of the body], not as a form, since by its operation it is not the body’s form, but its mover. Now, the aforesaid impressions of the soul upon the body are consequent upon the soul’s impression when imagining something. Therefore, they are produced by the soul as mover but not as form.

Obj. 9: The reason why God can work wonders is because his power is infinite. Now, in The Book of Causes, it is stated that the power of an intelligence is infinite, especially over the lower world. (The Book of Causes, Proposition 16.) This can also be proved from the fact that an intelligence causes the heavenly movement (as proved above), which has a natural aptitude to be everlasting, and only an infinite power can cause an everlasting movement, as is shown in Physics 7. (Aristotle, Physics 8.10, 266a23, 267b17–26.) Therefore, it would seem that angels can work miracles even by their natural power.

Obj. 10: It is also stated in The Book of Causes that a united force is stronger than one that is divided, (The Book of Causes, Proposition 17.) and the Commentator says that the more an intelligence’s power is concentrated and united, the greater and stronger it is, and the more capable of working wonders. Now, the Commentator is speaking there of an intelligence’s natural power, since he did not know about the power of grace. Therefore, by its natural power an angel can work miracles.

Obj. 11: But to this it might be replied that an angel can work wonders not by his own power, but by employing the powers implanted by God within natural things, in order to produce the desired result.

On the contrary, these natural seeds that contain the active powers of nature can be employed so as to produce a certain effect only by local movement. Now, it seems that for the same reason bodies obey or do not obey a spiritual substance, whether as to local movement or as to other kinds of movement, since every natural movement has its own proper and determinate mover. Hence, if angels have at their command the use of these seeds in the production of an effect in nature by means of local movement, they will also be able by the movements of alteration or of generation to induce a form into matter by their mere command, and this is to work wonders.

Obj. 12: The power to impress a form upon matter and the power to prevent its impression are in the same genus; thus, the form of fire is induced into matter by the power of a body, and it is also the power of a body that prevents the induction of that form. Now, a natural agent is prevented by the power of a spiritual creature from inducing a form into matter. Thus, it is said that by virtue of some particular writing a man was not burnt after being cast into a furnace; and clearly, this was not the work of God, who protects his saints from torture on account of their merits and not by means of any writing; thus, this must have been a work of a demon’s power. It would seem, therefore, with equal reason, that a spiritual creature can at will induce a form into matter without any corporeal agency. And yet, one would reckon it a miracle that a man be not burnt when cast into the fire, as in the miracle of the three youths.

Obj. 13: A form that is in the imagination or in the senses is of greater nobility than a form in corporeal matter, inasmuch as it is more immaterial. Now, a spiritual creature can impress a certain form within one’s imagination or senses, such that a thing appears otherwise than it is. Thus, Augustine says: verily the demons do not create natural things, they only change the outward appearance of things created by the true God; (Augustine, City of God 18.18.2 (PL 41:574).) and afterwards, he adds that they do this by altering one’s imagination. Much more, therefore, can an angel impress a form into corporeal matter; and thus, the same conclusion follows as before.

Obj. 14: To this it might be replied that the demon’s alteration of the imagination does not occur through an impression of new forms, but through a composition and division of forms already existing.

On the contrary, the soul is more noble than a corporeal nature. If, then, a demon can by his own power produce what is the proper activity of the sensitive soul, namely, composition and division of images, it would seem that a fortiori he is able by his own power to produce the activities of a corporeal nature; and thus, the same conclusion follows as before.

Obj. 15: As power is to power, so is activity to activity. Now, an angel’s power does not depend on the power of a corporeal creature. Neither, then, does his activity depend on that of a corporeal creature; and therefore, he can work miracles independently of natural causes.

Obj. 16: Just as to make a thing out of nothing belongs to an infinite power by reason of the infinite distance between being and nothing, so too is it possible to a finite power to bring forth a thing from potency to act. Now, an angel’s power surpasses all other finite powers. Therefore, by his power an angel can bring into actuality all the forms that are in the potency of matter without the action of any natural cause; and thus, the same conclusion follows as before.

Obj. 17: Every unimpeded agent both acts and is acted upon. Now, an angel that acts on these corporeal things is in no way acted upon by them. Therefore, he is not prevented in his action from working miracles by acting independently of natural causes.

On the contrary (1), God works miracles inasmuch as nature is subject to him. But it is not subject to the angels: since he has not subjected unto angels the world (Heb 2:5). Therefore, angels cannot work miracles by their natural power.

Furthermore (2), Augustine says (Augustine, On the Trinity 3.8 (PL 42:875–77).) that we must not think that the matter of bodily things will readily serve the angels who sinned. But it would serve them if a spiritual creature were able to work miracles by the power of its own nature. Therefore, they cannot work miracles.

I answer that Augustine, after carefully discussing this question in On the Trinity 2, concludes: it is good for me to be mindful of my limitations, and I would have my brethren remember theirs, lest human weakness should go further than is safe. How angels do these things, or rather how God does them through his angels, my sight is not keen enough to see, my reason too diffident to unravel, my mind too slow to grasp; nor can I answer with assurance all the queries that could be made on this matter, as though I were an angel myself, or a prophet, or an apostle. (Augustine, On the Trinity 3.10, para. 21 (PL 42:881).) Therefore, employing the same moderation, without dogmatizing and without prejudice to a better opinion, we shall discuss the question so far as reason and authority will avail to elucidate it.

It must be observed, then, that in regard to the point at issue, philosophers have disagreed.

For Avicenna held that the spiritual substance that moves the heavens produces effects in the lower bodies, not only by means of the celestial movement, but even independently of any bodily action; for he contended that corporeal matter is much more obedient to the concept and command of the aforesaid spiritual substance than to any contrary agents in nature or to any corporeal agent. (Avicenna, The Metaphysics of the Healing 9.2, 10.1.) It was owing to this cause, he maintained, that sometimes unusual disturbances take place in the air, and extraordinary cures of diseased persons, which we call “miracles.” He gives as an instance the movement of the body by the soul, inasmuch as when the latter is affected by a mere imagination, the body without any corporeal agency is altered both as regards its heat or cold, and sometimes as regards fever or leprosy.

This view is quite in keeping with the principles laid down by him. For he holds that natural agents do no more than dispose matter, whereas substantial forms are bestowed by a spiritual substance, which he calls the “giver of forms,” the result being that matter in the natural order obeys the spiritual substance, as regards the reception form from it. It is not a wonder, then, if a spiritual substance produces certain forms in matter outside the order of corporeal agents and by the sole command of its will. For if matter obeys a separate substance in receiving a substantial form, it is only reasonable that it obey in receiving even the dispositions to form, for it is clear that this requires less power.

In the opinion of Aristotle, however, and of those who follow him, the above view cannot stand. Aristotle, in fact, advances two arguments to prove that forms are not impressed upon matter by a separate substance, but are brought into act from the potency of matter through the action of a form existing in matter. The first of these arguments is given in Metaphysics 7, (Aristotle, Metaphysics 7.8, 1033b8–1034a8.) and is based on the principle that he there proves, that what is made is properly speaking the composite and not form or matter, since it is the composite that properly speaking has being. Now, every agent produces its like; therefore, that which gives actual existence to natural things by generation must be something composite and not a form without matter (that is, a separate substance).

The other argument, to be found in Physics 8, (Aristotle, Physics 8.8, 264b19–265a10.) is that because the same thing has a natural aptitude to produce always the same effect, but what is generated or corrupted or altered, or increased or diminished, is not always in the same condition, it follows that whatever generates or moves things with the aforesaid kinds of movement is not always in the same condition; rather, it changes. But this cannot be a separate substance, because all such substances are immobile, and anything that moves is a body, as is proved in Physics 6. (Aristotle, Physics 6.5, 235b6–236b19.) Consequently, the immediate cause leading a form into act by generation or alteration is a body that changes in some way, insofar as it approaches and then recedes through a local motion.

Hence it is that a separate substance, by its command, causes without mediation local movement in a body, and by the latter’s mediation causes other movements, whereby the thing moved acquires a new form. Now, this is reasonable. For local movement is the first and most perfect movement, in that it does not change a thing inwardly, but only in point of its exterior place; therefore, a corporeal nature receives its first movement, which is local, from a spiritual nature. Accordingly, the corporeal nature obeys the command of the spiritual as regards its natural order to local movement, but not as regards the reception of a form. This, of course, is to be understood in reference to created spiritual nature, whose power and essence are limited as regards a definite genus, and not to uncreated spiritual substance, whose power is infinite, and not limited to some genus according to the rule of some genus.

In this point, faith is in agreement with this opinion; thus, Augustine says that corporeal matter does not at a nod serve the angels. (Augustine, On the Trinity 3.8–9 (PL 42:875–79).) However, the teaching of faith differs somewhat from the position of the philosophers. For the aforementioned philosophers held that separate substances by their command move the heavenly bodies with local movement, but that in this lower world local movement is not caused immediately by a separate substance, but by other movers acting naturally, voluntarily, or violently.

Thus, the commentator Alexander (Alexander of Aphrodisias was a Greek Peripatetic philosopher who taught in Athens (ca. 198–211 AD).) ascribes to the impression of the heavenly bodies all the effects that we ascribe to angels or demons in this lower world. But this seems insufficient, because these effects do not follow a definite course, as do those that are produced by the natural action of the higher or lower bodies. Besides, there are certain effects that the heavenly bodies are in no way capable of; for instance, the sudden changing of rods into snakes, and many other such things.

But faith asserts that not only do the heavenly bodies move things locally by their command, but that other bodies also do so, at God’s behest or with his permission. Accordingly, by their command, they cause local movement in those bodies that have a natural active power to produce a particular effect, which [powers] Augustine calls the “seeds of nature.” (Augustine, On the Literal Interpretation of Genesis 9.17 (PL 34:405–6).) It follows that their actions will not be in the manner of a miracle, but rather in the manner of art. For miraculous effects are produced by a supernatural cause without recourse to the action of nature, while it belongs to art to employ the action of natural principles in producing an effect which either nature cannot produce or at least not so efficiently. Hence, the Philosopher says in Physics 2 that art imitates nature, and it makes things which nature cannot make, and in some cases it even assists nature; (Aristotle, Physics 2.2, 194a21; 2.8, 199a12–15.) thus, the physician helps nature to heal by the application of things that, by their altering or being digested, have a natural power for this.

Now, in the production of such effects, the good or bad angel’s art is more efficacious and leads to better results than the art of man, and this for two reasons.

First, because seeing that corporeal effects in this lower world very much depend on the heavenly bodies, an art can attain its effect best when the heavenly body’s power acts in cooperation with it. Thus, in farming and medicine, it is useful to notice the movements and position of the sun, moon, and stars, whose powers are much better known to the angels by their natural knowledge than to men. Hence, they are better fitted to choose the hour at which the power of a heavenly body is more likely to cooperate in producing the desired result. This seems to be the reason why necromancers observe the position of the stars when they invoke the demons.

The second reason is that angels are better acquainted than men with the active and passive powers of the lower bodies, and are therefore able to employ them effectively with greater ease and expedition, insofar as by their command they move bodies. Hence, again, physicians produce more wonderful results in healing because they are better acquainted with the powers of natural things.

We may add as a third reason that an instrument acts not only by its own power, but also by the power of its mover. Thus, even the heavenly body has a certain effect by the power of the spiritual substance that moves it; for instance, it is a cause of life, as is clear in animals engendered from decomposition, and an animal’s natural heat, as an instrument of its vegetative soul, leads to the formation of flesh. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to suppose that natural bodies themselves, inasmuch as they are moved by a spiritual substance, attain a greater effect. We may gather this from the words of Gen 6:4, where we read: giants were upon the earth in those days. For after the sons of God went in to the daughters of men, and they brought forth children, these are the mighty men, men of renown, and the Gloss commenting on this text observes that it is not incredible that men of this kind were born of women who consorted with demons. (Glossa ordinaria 1, 140, at Genesis 6:2–4 (PL 113:104).)

It is, therefore, evident that angels, whether good or wicked, are unable to work miracles by their natural power, but they are able to produce certain wonderful effects in which their action is present after the manner of an art.

Reply Obj. 1: It is true that the natural power of an angel or demon is greater than the natural power of a body, but it does not extend so far as to induce form into matter immediately, but only by means of a body. Hence, it does this in a nobler way than does a body, since the first mover is more fundamental to the action than is the second.

Reply Obj. 2: The forms of natural things in the angelic mind are more actual than forms existing in matter; and on account of this, they are the immediate principle of a more perfect activity, namely, of understanding. But they are not the immediate principle of that activity that is the alteration of matter; rather, they act through the mediation of will, and will through the mediation of power, and the power is the immediate cause of local movement; and by the mediation of the motion, they are the cause of other motions, and a certain cause of the induction of form within matter.

Reply Obj. 3: Even the forms in the human intellect are not forms effective of artifacts except by the mediation of the will, the motive power, the natural organs, and the craftsman’s tools.

Reply Obj. 4: A power that can employ an organ that responds to it in all its activities must have that organ united to it; thus, the eye is united to the faculty of sight. But no body could be so responsive to an angel in this way so as to equal his power; therefore, an angel has had no organ naturally united to him. For this reason too, those philosophers who held that separate substances produce no effects here below except by the mediation of the heavens have said that a spiritual substance is united to the heavens as its proper instrument, and this they called the heavens’ “soul”; and another that is not united to the heavens they called the “intelligence,” by which the heavens’ soul is moved as one desiring is moved by the object of his desire.

Reply Obj. 5: Although an angel causes the movement of the heavens, he can by his act of intelligence bring his action to bear on things here below independently of the heavens’ movement, and of any body whatsoever, by moving other bodies; and yet, he is unable to impress a form within matter without employing a corporeal agent.

Reply Obj. 6: The heavens, being a corporeal agent, can be an immediate cause altering and moving a thing toward form, but it is not so with the angels.

Reply Obj. 7: In the natural order, the soul by its own command moves the body locally, for its appetitive power commands movement and the body obeys it at a nod; and this is also effected through the motive powers that are affixed to the organs and flow into the body from the soul, which informs the body. Other alterations, such as heat, cold, and the like, derive from the soul by the mediation of local movement. It is also evident that imagination itself gives rise to a passion by which in some way the movements of the heart and spirits are affected, and that when the latter are drawn towards the heart or diffused throughout the members, the body is likewise altered; and this may even cause disease, especially if the matter be so disposed.

Reply Obj. 8: This suffices for the reply to the eighth objection.

Reply Obj. 9: An angel’s power is said to be infinite over the lower world inasmuch as his power is not received in matter; and consequently, is not limited by an inferior recipient. But it is not infinite in respect of things above it, as already stated, because the angel receives a finite nature from God, such that his substance is confined to a particular genus; and consequently, his power is confined to a particular mode of action, and this cannot be said of God.

Reply Obj. 10: Although an angel does wonderful things through the mode of art, still he does not do miracles, as we have stated above.

Reply Obj. 11: Although the local movements of the lower bodies, as well as other movements, are brought about by certain determinate natural causes, the corporeal creature in the natural order obeys the spiritual as regards local movement, but not as regards other movements, for the reason already given; and this is especially so if the spiritual creature’s power is not determined to a certain body, as the soul’s power is to the body united to it.

Reply Obj. 12: Just as a created spiritual substance cannot by its command give form to matter, even so it cannot by its command prevent a form from being given to matter by a natural agent; and if it does this sometimes, it is by putting a natural obstacle in the way, even though this may not be perceptible to human senses, especially since it can move the flame of a fire locally so as not to approach something combustible.

Reply Obj. 13: A separate spiritual substance can by its natural power influence the imagination, not indeed by introducing forms into the organ of imagination on command, but by raising a kind of commotion of the spirits and humors. For it is evident that if these be disturbed, images start to appear, as instanced in those who are insane or asleep. Besides, it is said that even certain natural things are effective in producing this disturbance in the imagination, and that magicians make use of them in order to produce illusory visions.

Reply Obj. 14: This suffices for the reply to the fourteenth objection.

Reply Obj. 15: Even as an angel’s power surpasses the power of the heavenly body, so too as regards activity, as stated above; yet this is not to the extent of inducing form into matter immediately, by mere command.

Reply Obj. 16: A finite power can lead something from potency to act, but not any finite power whatsoever, nor in any way whatsoever; for every finite power has a fixed mode of action.

Reply Obj. 17: Even if an agent is not hindered by anything, it cannot do what is beyond its power; thus, fire cannot make a thing cold even if there is nothing outside it preventing it. Therefore, from the fact that an angel cannot induce a form into matter by his own command, we may infer, not that he is prevented from doing this by something extrinsic, but that his natural power does not extend to this.