Chapter 10 — Aids in the preservation of chastity

Since chastity is so difficult a virtue that, in our Lord’s words, not all men take it, but those only to whom it is given (Matt 19:11), it is necessary for those who desire to live a life of continence, so to conduct themselves as to avoid all that might prove an obstacle in the prosecution of their design. Now there are three principal hindrances to continence. The first arises from the body, the second from the mind, the third from external circumstances, whether they be of persons or of things.

The body is an obstacle to continence because, as the Apostle says: the flesh lusts against the Spirit (Gal 5:17); and the works of the flesh are said to be fornication, uncleanness, unchastity, and the like (Gal 5:19). Concupiscence is that law of the flesh of which he says: I see another law in my members fighting against the law of my mind (Rom 7:23). Now the more the flesh is pampered by superabundance of food and by effeminacy of life, the more will its concupiscence increase. For as St. Jerome says: a man heated with wine will quickly give the rein to lust (Epistulae 69). (Jerome, Epistulae, epistle 69, para. 9 (CSEL 54:696; PL 22:663).) And Proverbs warns us: wine is a luxurious thing (Prov 20:1). And Job tells us that the behemoth, by whom satan is signified, sleeps under the shadow, in the covert of the reed and in moist places (Job 40:16). (Gregory the Great, Moralia in Job, bk. 32, ch. 12, para. 16 (CCSL 143B; CPL 1708; PL 76:644C).) St. Gregory thus interprets this passage: moist places betoken voluptuous works. We do not slip on dry ground, but we have no sure foothold on slippery soil. Hence those men pursue the journey of this present life in moist places who cannot hold themselves upright in justice (Moral. 33). (Gregory the Great, Moralia in Job 33.3.9 (CCSL 143B; CPL 1708; PL 76:674B).)

He, then, who desires to undertake a life of continence must chastise his flesh by abstention from pleasure and by fasts, vigils, and such like exercises. The Apostle sets before us his own conduct as an example in this respect: every one who strives for mastery refrains himself from all things (1 Cor 9:25); and a little later he adds: I chastise my body and bring it into subjection, lest perhaps when I have preached to others, I myself should become a castaway (1 Cor 9:27). What the Apostle practised in deed, he taught in word. For after his warning against chambering and impurities, he concludes: make no provision for the desires of the flesh (Rom 13:13–14). He rightly lays stress upon the desires of the flesh, i.e., its desire for pleasure, for it is incumbent on us to make provision for what is necessary for our body, and the Apostle himself says: no man ever hates his own flesh, but he nourishes and cherishes it (Eph 5:29).

An obstacle to continence arises also from the mind if we dwell on unchaste thoughts. The Lord says by his prophet: take away the evil of your devices from my eyes (Isa 1:16). For evil thoughts often lead to evil deeds. Hence the prophet Micah says: woe to you who devise that which is unprofitable, and he immediately continues: and work evil in your beds (Mic 2:1).

Amongst all evil thoughts, those which most powerfully incline unto sin are thoughts concerning carnal gratification. Philosophers assign two reasons for this fact. First, they say that as concupiscence is innate in man, and grows with him from youth upwards, (Aristotle, Ethics 2.3, 1105a1.) he is easily carried away by it when his imagination sets it before him. Hence the Philosopher says in Ethics 2 that we cannot easily judge of pleasure unless we enjoy it (2.9, 1109b7). (Aristotle, Ethics 2.11, 1109b8.)

The second reason is that, as the same Philosopher says in Ethics 3, pleasure is more voluntary in particular cases than in general (3.12, 1119a31). (Aristotle, Ethics 3.22, 1119a31.) It is clear that by dallying with a thought we descend to particulars; hence by daily thoughts we are incited to lust. On this account the Apostle warns us: flee from fornication (1 Cor 6:18); for, as the Gloss says: it is permissible to await a conflict with other vices, but this one must be shunned; for in no other means can it be overcome. (Peter Lombard, Commentaries on the Psalms and St. Paul, at 1 Cor 6:18 (PL 191:1583C).)

But as there are many obstacles in the way of chastity, there are also many remedies against such obstacles. The first and chief remedy is to keep the mind busied in prayer and in the contemplation of divine things. This lesson is taught where the Apostle says: be not drunk with wine wherein is luxury, but be filled with the Holy Spirit, speaking to yourselves in psalms and hymns and spiritual canticles, which pertain to contemplation, singing and making melody in your hearts to the Lord, whereby prayer is implied (Eph 5:18–19). Hence the Lord says through his prophet: for by my praise I will bridle you, lest you should perish (Isa 48:9). For the divine praise is, as it were, a bridle on the soul, checking it from sin.

The second remedy against lust is the study of the Scriptures, as St. Jerome says to the monk Rusticus: love the study of Holy Writ, and you will not love the vices of the flesh (Epistulae 125). (Jerome, Epistulae 125.11 (CSEL 56:130; PL 22:1078).) And when the Apostle says to Timothy: be an example of the faithful in word, in conversation, in charity, in faith, in chastity, he immediately adds: till I come, attend unto reading (1 Tim 4:12).

The third preservative against concupiscence is to occupy the mind with good thoughts. St. Chrysostom, in his commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew, says that physical mutilation is not such a curb to temptation and such a source of peace to the mind as is a habit of bridling the thoughts (Homily 62). (Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew 62.3 (PG 58:599).) The Apostle also says: for the rest, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever modest, whatsoever just, whatsoever holy, whatsoever lovely, whatsoever of good fame, if there be any virtue, if any praise of discipline, think on these things (Phil 4:8).

The fourth help to chastity is to shun idleness and to engage in bodily toil. We read in the book of Sirach: idleness has taught much evil (Sir 33:29). Idleness is preeminently an incentive to sins of the flesh. Hence Ezechiel says: behold, this was the iniquity of Sodom your sister: pride, fullness of bread, abundance, and idleness (Ezek 16:49). St. Jerome likewise writes in his letter to the monk Rusticus: do some work, so that the devil may always find you employed (Epistulae 125). (Jerome, Epistulae 125.11 (CSEL 56:130; PL 22:1078).)

A fifth remedy for concupiscence lies in certain kinds of mental disquietude. St. Jerome relates, in the epistle quoted above, that in a congregation of cenobites there dwelt a young man who could not by means of fasting or any laborious work free himself from temptations of the flesh. The superior of the monastery, seeing that the youth was on the point of yielding, adopted the following means for his relief. He commanded one of the most discreet among the fathers to constantly upbraid the young man, to load him with insults and reproach, and after treating him thus to lodge complaints against him with the superior. Witnesses were called, who all took the senior father’s part. This treatment was continued for a year. At the end of that time the superior questioned the youth about his old train of thought. ‘Father,’ was the reply, ‘I am scarcely permitted to live. How, in such straits, shall I be inclined to sin?’ (Jerome, Epistulae 125.13 (CSEL 56:132; PL 22:1079-1080).)

A great obstacle to continence arises from extrinsic circumstances, such as frequent conversation with women. We read in Sirach: many have perished by the beauty of a woman, and hereby lust is enkindled as a fire (Sir 9:9); and then it adds: for her conversation burns as fire (Sir 9:11). And then the following safeguard is proposed against these dangers: do not look upon a woman who has a mind for many, lest you fall into her snares. Do not frequent the company of a dancer, and do not listen to her, lest you perish by the force of her charms (Sir 9:3–4). And it is said: do not gaze on everybody’s beauty; and do not tarry among women. For from garments comes a moth, and from a woman the iniquity of a man (Sir 42:12–13). St. Jerome, in his book against Vigilantius, writes that a monk, knowing his own frailty, and how fragile is the vessel which he carries, will fear to slip or stumble, lest he fall and be broken. Hence he will chiefly avoid gazing at women, and especially at young ones, lest he be caught by the eyes of a harlot, and lest beauty of form lead him on to unlawful embraces. (Jerome, Contra Vigilantium, para. 15-16 (CCSL 79C; CPL 0611; PL 23:367A-B).)

Abbot Moses, in his conferences to the fathers, says that in order to preserve purity of heart, we ought to seek solitude and to practice fasting, watching, and bodily labor, to wear scant clothing, and to attend to reading, in order by these means to be able to keep our heart uncontaminated by passion and to ascend to a high degree of charity (Conferences 1.7). (John Cassian, Collationes partum, collection 1, ch. 7 (CSEL 13:13; PL 49:489A).) It is for this reason that such exercises are practiced in the religious life. Perfection does not consist in them, but they are, so to speak, instruments whereby perfection is acquired. Abbot Moses, therefore, continues: fasting, vigils, hunger, meditation on the Scriptures, nakedness, and the privation of all possessions, are not themselves perfection, but they are the instruments of perfection. The end of discipline does not lie in them, but by their means we arrive at the end. (Cassian, Coll. 1.7 (CSEL 13:14; PL 49:490A).)

But someone may object that it is possible to acquire perfection without fasting or vigils or the like, for we read: the Son of man came eating and drinking (Matt 11:19), nor did his disciples fast, as did the Pharisees and the followers of St. John. To this argument we find in the Gloss the following answer: John drank no wine nor strong drink, for abstinence increases merit though nature has no power to do so. But why should the Lord, to whom it belongs to forgive sin, turn away from sinners who feast when he is able to make them more righteous than those who fast? (Glossa ordinaria, in Bibliorum Sacrorum cum Glossa ordinaria iam ante quidem a Strabo Fulgensi, collecta: nunc autem novis patrum, cum Graecorum, tum Latinorum expositionibus locupletata cum postilla Nicolai Lyrani (Venice: 1603), vol. 5, p. 175, at Matt 9:14, from Rabanus Maurus, Commentariorum in Mattaeum ad Haistulphum, bk. 3, at Matt 11:19 (PL 107:877B-C).) The disciples and Christ had no need to fast, for the presence of the Bridegroom gave them more strength than the followers of John gained by fasting. Hence our Lord says: but the days will come when the Bridegroom shall be taken away from them, and then they shall fast (Matt 9:15). St. Chrysostom makes the following comment on these words: fasting is not naturally grievous save to those whose weakness is indisposed to it. They who desire to contemplate heavenly wisdom rejoice in fasting. Now, as when our Lord spoke the words we have just quoted, the disciples were still weak in virtue, it was not the fitting season to bring sadness upon them. It was more meet to wait until they were strengthened in faith. They were dispensed from fasting, not by reason of their gluttony, but by a certain privilege (Homilies on Matthew 30). (Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew 30.3-4 (PG 57:366-67).)

The Apostle, however, expressly shows how fasting enables men to avoid sin, and to acquire perfection, saying: giving no offense to any man, that our ministry be not blamed, but in all things let us exhibit ourselves as the ministers of God, in much patience, in tribulation, in necessities, in distress, in stripes, in prisons, in seditions, in labors, in watchings, in fastings, in chastity (2 Cor 6:3–5).