D. 47 - The general judgment

After the Master has considered the recompense and punishment of souls, which precedes the general judgment, here he begins to consider the rewarding and punishment that will happen through the general judgment. And this is divided into two parts: in the first, he examines the general judgment itself; in the second, he considers the reward and punishment that comes after the general judgment (Distinction 49) at: “but after the resurrection, when the universal judgment has been made and carried out, distinct boundaries shall mark the two cities.” (Sententiae IV, 49.1 (280). 1 citing Augustine, Enchiridion, ch. 111.)

The first part is divided into two: in the first of these, he considers what pertains to the manner of the judgment and the ministry of the judge; in the second, he considers what pertains to the person of the judge, Distinction 48, at: it is also usual to ask in what form Christ will judge. (Sent. IV, 48.1 (275). 1.)

The first part is in two parts: in the first, he inquires into the manner of judgment; in the second, about the judge’s ministers, at: for it is not Christ alone who shall judge. (Sent. IV, 47.2 (271). 1.)

And this part is divided into three: for in the first he shows how men will judge alongside Christ the judge; in the second he shows what the ministering angels will reveal in the judgment, at: since we read in the Gospel that the Lord shall send his angels; (Sent. IV, 47.4 (273). 1.) in the third part he inquires whether demons will be ministers of this judgment, by torturing the souls of the damned, at: and it is usual to ask whether in hell, after judgment, demons . . . are set over evil men for their punishment. (Sent. IV, 47.5 (274). 1 citing Mt. 18, 34, with interlinear gloss.)

The first part is divided in two: in the first he shows that some men will judge with Christ; in the second, he enumerates the four orders of men who will come to the judgment, at: and there will be four orders in the judgment. (Sent. IV, 47.3 (272). 1.)

Here two questions arise. First, about the general judgment. Second, about the fire that will precede the face of the judge.

Question 1

The general judgment

Concerning the first, three questions arise:

first, about the judgment itself.

• second, about those who will judge with Christ.
• third, about those who will be judged in the judgment.
• Article 1

About the judgment itself

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the first question, we proceed thus. (Parallels: ST III, q. 59, a. 5; Super Matt. 25; SCG IV, ch. 96; Quodl. X, q. 1, a. 2; Comp. theo. 242.) It seems that there will be no general judgment. For as it says in Nahum 1:9: he will not take vengeance twice on his foes. But now God judges the individual acts of men, since after death he will assign punishment or rewards to each person according to his merits, and even now in this life he rewards or punishes some for good or bad works. Therefore, it seems that there will not be another future judgment.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, in no court does the execution of the sentence precede the judgment. But the sentence of divine judgment for men is either the obtaining of the kingdom or exclusion from the kingdom, as is evident from Matthew 25. Therefore, since at this time some people attain the eternal kingdom, and others are excluded from it perpetually, it seems that there will not be another judgment.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the reason that things must be brought up in court is that there is a doubt which must be settled about them. But before the end of the world, the damnation of each one of the damned is determined, and for each of the saints his own beatitude. Therefore, it seems that it is not necessary for there to be any future judgment.

On the contrary (1), it says in Matthew 12:41: the men of Nineveh will arise at the judgment with this generation and condemn it. Therefore, after the resurrection there will be another judgment.

Furthermore (2), it says in John 5:29: and come forth, those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment. Therefore, it seems that after the resurrection there will be another judgment.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that as regards the argument and sentencing, that judgment happens by vocal speech. (Parallels: Super Matt. 19 and 25; Resp. de Art. 42, a. 27; Super I Cor. 6, lec. 1; Comp. theo. 244.) For as Augustine says, (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 1.) it is unknown how many days the future judgment will last. But this would not be uncertain if those things that are said to take place in the judgment were accomplished only mentally. Therefore, that judgment happens vocally, and not only mentally.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, Gregory says, and this is found in the text, at least those who have held to faith in him in word will hear the words of the judge. But this cannot be understood as being an interior word, because this is how all will hear the words of judgment: for all the deeds of others will be made known to all, both good and bad, as was said above in Distinction 43. Therefore, it seems that that judgment will be enacted by a voice.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, as will be said in the following distinction, Christ will judge in his human form, in which he will can be seen physically by all. Therefore, it seems by the same argument that he will speak with a physical voice, so that he may be heard by all.

On the contrary (1), Augustine says (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 14.) that the book of life spoken of in Revelation 20 is to be understood as a certain divine force, by which it happens that for each person his own works, whether good or evil, shall be recalled to memory, and discerned with a marvelously swift flash of the mind, so that his knowledge will accuse or excuse his conscience; and thus at once all and each will be judged. But if the merits of each individual were recounted by voice, all and each could not be judged at the same time. Therefore, it seems that the presentation of the case will not be done vocally.

Furthermore (2), the sentencing should correspond to the testimony proportionally. But the testimony and accusation or exoneration will be mental; this is why Romans 2:15–16 says: their conscience also bears witness and their conflicting thoughts accuse or perhaps excuse them on that day when . . . God judges the secrets of men. Therefore, it seems that that sentencing and the whole judgment will be carried out mentally.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that the time of the future judgment will not be unknown. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 45, q. 3, a. 2; ST III, q. 10, a. 2, ad 1; In IV Sent. d. 43, a. 3, qa. 2; Super Matt. 24; De potentia, q. 5, a. 6; Comp. theo. 242.) For just as the holy patriarchs were awaiting the first coming, in the same way we await the second coming. But the holy patriarchs knew the time of the first coming, as is evident from the number of weeks that are described by Daniel 9:24–27; this is also why the Jews are rebuked because they did not recognize the time of Christ’s coming, as is seen in Luke 12:56: you hypocrites! You know how to interpret the appearance of earth and sky; but why do you not know how to interpret the present time? Therefore, it seems that the time of the second coming, in which God will come for judgment, should also be known to us.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, through signs we arrive at the knowledge of the things signified. But many signs are set down for us in Scripture about the future judgment, as is clear from Matthew 14 and Luke 21 and Mark 12. Therefore, we can attain the knowledge of that time.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the Apostle said, we are those upon whom the end of the ages have come (1 Cor 10:11); and in 1 John 2:18, it says: children, it is the last hour. Therefore, since already a long time has passed since these words were said, it seems that at least now we can know that the last judgment is close.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, the time of the judgment should not be secret unless so that each person may anxiously prepare himself for the judgment, since he does not know the exact time. But the same anxiety would remain even if the judgment were known: for the time of each person’s death is unknown to him, and as Augustine says (Augustine, Epistles, Epistle 199 to Hesychius, par. 1 (CSEL 57:245).) in his letter to Hesychius, the world’s last day will deal with each person in the state that his own last day found him. Therefore, it is not necessary for the time of the judgment to be secret.

On the contrary (1), it is said in Mark 13:32: but of that day or that hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father. And the Son is said to not know inasmuch as he does not cause us to know.

Furthermore (2), the day of the Lord will come like a thief in the night (1 Thess 5:2). Therefore, since the coming of a thief in the night is entirely unknown, it seems that the day of the last judgment is entirely uncertain.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, just as activity pertains to the principle of things by which they are produced in being, so judgment pertains to the terminus by which things are brought to their end.

Now, two operations are distinguished in God. One by which he first produces a thing in being, instituting its nature and distinguishing those things that pertain to its completion: and this is the work God is said to have rested from in Genesis 2:2. His other operation that whereby he carries out the governance of creation, which is what John 5:17 speaks of: my father is working still, and I am working. Accordingly, two kinds of judgment are distinguished in him, but in the reverse order.

One is the judgment that corresponds to the work of governance, which cannot exist without judgment, and by this judgment indeed each one is judged individually for his own works not only according as befits him, but according as befits the governance of the universe. This is why the rewarding of one person is delayed for the benefit of others, as it says in Hebrews 11, and the sufferings of one person result in progress for another. This is why it is necessary that there be some universal judgment corresponding oppositely to the first production of things in being, so that namely, just as at that time all things proceeded immediately from God, so too on the last day a final completion will be given to the world, with each person receiving finally what is due to him in himself.

Therefore, in that judgment we will see clearly the divine justice regarding all the things now hidden because sometimes things concerning one man are arranged to the benefit of others in a way other than his obvious works seem to require. Therefore, on that day there will also be a universal separation of the good from the wicked, for in the end it will not happen that the wicked benefit by the good or the good by the evil. And it is for the sake of this benefit that the good are found intermingled with the wicked in the meantime, while the state of this life is directed by divine providence.

Reply Obj. 1: Every man is both an individual person and a part of the whole human race: and this is why he must have two judgments. One is individual, which happens to him after his death, when he receives according to those things he did in his body, although not completely, for not according to the body, but only according to the soul. But he must have another judgment as he is a part of the whole human race, just as someone is said to be judged according to human justice even when the judgment is given to the community that he is a part of. Therefore, on that day when the universal judgment of the whole human race takes place through the universal separation of the good and the wicked, each person will also be judged as a result. Nevertheless, God will not judge anyone twice: for he does not impose two punishments for one sin, but punishment which is not completely inflicted before the judgment, in the last judgment will be completed, after which the wicked will be tormented in body and soul together.

Reply Obj. 2: The sentencing proper to that general judgment is the universal separation of the good from the bad, which will not happen before that judgment. But as to the particular sentence of each person, the judgment’s effect will not have fully taken place, either: for the good will also be further rewarded after the judgment, both by the addition of the body’s glory and by the number of the saints being complete. And the wicked will also be further tormented by the addition of the bodily punishment, and by the number of the damned in punishment being fulfilled: for the more people they burn with, the more they will burn.

Reply Obj. 3: The universal judgment, as was said, has to do more directly with the benefit of men than with the individuals to be judged. Therefore, although the judgment of every man’s own damnation or reward will be known to him for certain, nevertheless, not everyone’s damnation or reward will be known to everyone, which is why the judgment will be necessary.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that whatever may be true about this question, it cannot be defined for certain. Nevertheless, it can be most probably guessed that the whole judgment, both as to the presentation of the case and the accusation of the wicked and the commendation of the good, and as to the sentencing of each, will be accomplished mentally. For if the deeds of individuals were vocally recounted, an inestimably huge amount of time would be needed for this, as Augustine (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 14.) also says in the City of God 20, if the book from whose writing all will be judged, as it says in Revelation 20:12, were conceived physically, who would be competent to guess its size and length? Or how much time would it take for the book to be read, in which the entire lives of all had been written? But no less time is required for telling orally the deeds of individuals than is required for reading them, if they were written in a material book. Therefore, it is probable that the things that are spoken of in Matthew 25, should be understood to be accomplished not vocally, but mentally.

Reply Obj. 1: The reason Augustine says it is uncertain how many days this judgment will last is that he had not settled whether it would be accomplished vocally. For if it were accomplished vocally, a lengthy time would be required for this; but if mentally, it could be done in a moment.

Reply Obj. 2: Even if the judgment happens mentally, the words of Gregory can still be saved: for although one’s own deeds and the deeds of others are made known to all, this is done by divine power, which is called ‘speech’ in the Gospel. Nevertheless, those who had faith, which they conceived from the words of God, will be judged by those words, for as it says in Romans 2:12, all who have sinned under the law will be judged by the law. Therefore, in a certain way, something will be said to those who were believers which will not be said to those who were unbelievers.

Reply Obj. 3: Christ will appear physically, so that he may be recognized as the physical judge by all men, and this indeed will be able to happen in a moment. But speech, which is measured by time, would require an immense extent of time, if the judgment were conducted by vocal speech.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that God is the cause of things through his knowledge. Now, he communicates both of these to created things when on the one hand he confers on things the power of acting upon other things of which they are the causes, and when on the other hand he also grants some creatures the knowledge of things. But in each case, he reserves something to himself, for he works some things in which no created being cooperates; and likewise he knows some things that are known to no mere created being.

Moreover, nothing else should be greater than those works that are subject to divine power alone, in which no creature cooperates with him; and the end of the world, when the day of judgment will happen, is this kind of work. For just as the world took the beginning of its existence from God immediately, so also no created cause will bring about the end of the world. Therefore, the knowledge of the end of the world is fittingly reserved to God alone. And the Lord himself seems to give this reason when he says: it is not for you to know times or seasons which the Father has fixed by his own power (Acts 1:7), as though he were saying that they had been reserved to his power alone.

Reply Obj. 1: In the first coming, Christ came secretly, in keeping with Isa 45:15: truly, thou art a God who hidest thyself, O God of Israel, the Savior. And this is why, in order for the time to be recognized by the faithful, it was necessary that a specific time be predetermined. But in the second coming, he will come openly, as it says in Psalm 50 (49):2, God shall come openly; and thus there will be no possibility of error about the knowledge of his coming. Consequently, it is not the same.

Reply Obj. 2: As Augustine (Augustine, Epistles (CSEL 57), Epistle 199 to Hesychius.) says in a letter about the day of judgment to Hesychius, the signs that are set down in the Gospels do not all pertain to the second coming, which will be at the end, but some of them pertain to the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, which has already passed; but some of them, and an even greater number, pertain to the coming in which he daily comes to the Church, visiting her spiritually, as he dwells in us by faith and love. Nor can what is recorded in the Gospels or the epistles regarding the last coming suffice for us to know the time of the judgment determinately; for those dangers that are foretold as announcing the approaching coming of Christ also existed at the time of the early Church, sometimes more intensely, sometimes less so. This is why also the very days of the apostles were called ‘the last days,’ as is seen in Acts 2:17, where Peter explains the words of Joel 2:28 as pertaining to that time: and in the last days it shall be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy. And yet much time has passed since that time, and sometimes more and sometimes fewer tribulations have existed in the Church. Therefore, it cannot be determined how far in the future the time will be, neither as regards the month, nor the year, nor the century, nor the millennium, as Augustine says in the same book. And if it were believed that in the end times these dangers would abound much more, it still could not be determined what amount of dangers would immediately precede the day of judgment or the coming of the anti-Christ, since also in the time of the early Church there were such serious persecutions and corruptions of errors abounded to such an extent that some believed that the coming of the Antichrist was close or imminent, as it says in the Ecclesiastical History, and Jerome’s book On Famous Men. (In PL 23:601–726.)

Reply Obj. 3: From the fact that it is said, it is the last hour, or from other similar expressions that are said in scripture, no determinate amount of time can be known. For it was not said in order to mean some brief hour of time, but to mean the last state of the world, which is like the last age, which does not have a definite amount of time that it should endure. It is like old age, which is the final age of a man, and has no certain fixed limit, since sometimes it is found to last as long as all the previous ages, or even longer, as Augustine says in question 58 of his book On the Eighty-three Different Questions. (Augustine, Book of Eighty-Three Questions (CCSL 44A), qu. 58.) This is also why in 2 Thessalonians 2, the Apostle excludes the false understanding that certain people had conceived from these words, so that they were believing that the day of the Lord had already arrived.

Reply Obj. 4: Even given the uncertainty of death, uncertainty about the judgment contributes to vigilance in two ways. First, it makes it impossible to know whether the judgment will be delayed even as long as a man’s life, so that then uncertainty about both matters causes greater diligence. Second, it makes a difference because a man does not worry only about his own person, but about his family and his state or kingdom, or about the whole Church, whose temporal duration is not fixed according to the lifetime of a man. And yet each of these must be handled such that the day of the Lord does not find them unprepared.

Article 2

About those who will judge with Christ

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the second question, we proceed thus. (Parallels: Super I Cor. 6, lec. 1; Super Ps. 49; Comp. theo. 245.) It seems that no men will judge with Christ. For the Father . . . has given all judgment to the Son, that all may honor the Son, even as they honor the Father (John 5:22–23). But this kind of honor should not be given to anyone but Christ. Therefore, etc.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, anyone who judges has power over what he judges. But those things about which there must be a future judgment, like human merits and rewards, are subject to divine authority alone. Therefore it does not belong to anyone to judge these things.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, that judgment will not be handed down by voice, but mentally, as is most probably guessed. But making merits and demerits known to the hearts of men, which is like accusation and commendation, or meting out punishment and reward, which is like the uttering of a sentence, will be done by divine power alone. Therefore no others will judge but Christ, who is God.

On the contrary (1), it says: you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt 19:28).

Furthermore (2), the Lord enters into judgment with the elders and princes of his people (Isa 3:14). Therefore it seems that others too shall judge with Christ.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that the power for judging does not correspond to voluntary poverty. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 49, q. 5, a. 5, qa. 1, ad 2; Super Matt. 19; Super I Cor. 6, lec. 1.) For this is promised to the twelve apostles alone: you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt 19:28). Therefore since not all those who choose poverty are apostles, it seems that the power to judge does not correspond to all of them.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, it is a greater thing to offer God the sacrifice of one’s own body than of a sacrifice of external things. But martyrs and also virgins offer the sacrifice of their own bodies to God, while the voluntarily poor offer up external goods. Therefore, the loftiness of judging power corresponds more to martyrs and virgins than to those who are willingly poor.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, commenting on John 5:45, it is Moses who accuses you, on whom you set your hope; the Gloss says, for you do not believe his voice. Also, John 12:48: the word that I have spoken will be his judge on the last day. Therefore by the fact that someone sets forth a law or a word of exhortation for instruction in morals, he is able to judge those who scorn it. But this belongs to teachers of the faith. Therefore it applies to teachers more than to the poor.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, because Christ was unjustly judged as a man, he merited to be judge of all who have human nature; which is why John 5:27 says: the Father . . . has given [the Son] authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of Man. But all who suffer persecution for justice’s sake are judged unjustly. Therefore judging power belongs more to them than to the poor.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, a superior is not judged by someone below him. But many people who use riches permissibly have merited more than many who are voluntarily poor. Therefore the voluntarily poor will not judge, but they will be judged by others.

On the contrary (1), he does not save the wicked, and he gives judgment to the poor (Job 36:6). Therefore, it is for the poor to judge.

Furthermore (2), commenting upon Matthew 19:29: every one who has left houses . . . for my name’s sake, the Gloss says: those who have left everything and followed the Lord, these shall be the judges; those who keep what is permitted, and use it well, shall be judged; and thus the same as above.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that the angels should judge: when the Son of man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him (Matt 25:31). But he is speaking about coming in judgment. Therefore it seems that the angels will also judge.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, the orders of angels draw their names from the offices that they execute. But one order of angels is the order of thrones, which seems to pertain to the power of judging, for a throne is the seat of the judge, a solium the seat of a king, and a cathedra the seat of a teacher of the faith. Therefore some of the angels will judge.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, after this life equality with the angels is promised to the saints (Matt 22:30). Therefore if men will have this power to judge, much more will the angels have it.

On the contrary (1), the Father . . . has given [the Son] authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of Man (John 5:27). But the angels do not share in human nature. Therefore neither will they share in the power to judge.

Furthermore (2), judging and being the minister of the judge do not pertain to the same person. But the angels will be present at that judgment as the ministers of the judge: the Son of Man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin (Matt 13:41). Therefore the angels will not judge.

Quaestiuncula 4

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that after the day of judgment demons will not execute the judge’s sentence on the damned. For demons sin more than men. Therefore it is not just that men should be tormented by demons.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, just as demons dole out evils to men, so do angels dole out good things. But to reward the good will not be the angels’ role; rather, this will come immediately from God. Therefore neither will punishing the wicked be the role of the demons.

On the contrary, by sinning, sinful men subject themselves to the devil. Therefore it is just that they be subjected to him in punishment, as though to be punished by him.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, there are many ways of saying ‘judge.’ One way is causally, as that on the basis of which someone appears to be judged is said to judge; and in this way some people are said to judge by comparison, inasmuch as by their comparison with others certain people are shown to be worthy of judgment, as is evident from Matthew 12:41: the men of Nineveh shall arise at the judgment with this generation, and condemn it. But this kind of judging is common to good and bad at the judgment. In another way, to judge is said interpretively, so to speak, for we interpret someone as doing something who consents to the one doing it; and so those who consent to Christ the judge by approving his sentence, are said to judge. And this kind of judging belongs to all the elect, which is why it says: the saints shall judge the nations (Wis 3:8). The third way of saying ‘judge’ is by a likeness, for someone has a likeness to the judge inasmuch as he sits in a lofty place like a judge; as counselors are said to judge: and according to this mode some people say that perfect men, to whom judging power is promised in Matthew 19:28, will judge, namely by their honorable confession, for they shall appear as superior to others in the judgment, running to meet Christ in the air.

But that does not seem to suffice for fulfilling the Lord’s promise, in which it is said, you shall sit . . . judging the twelve tribes, for it seems to add judgment over and above confession. And so there is a fourth mode of judging, which befits perfect men, inasmuch as the decrees of divine justice by which men shall be judged, are contained in them; just as if the book in which the law is contained were said to judge, and thus in Daniel 7:10: the court sat in judgment, and the books were opened. (In fact, this citation is Daniel 7:10, which reads: “iudicium sedit et libri aperti sunt.” However, Revelation 20:12 contains the latter part: “et vidi mortuos magnos et pusillos stantes in conspectu throni et libri aperti sunt et alius liber apertus est qui est vitae et iudicati sunt mortui ex his quae scripta erant in libris secundum opera ipsorum.”) And this is the mode by which Richard of St. Victor explains this judging, so that he says that those who attend to divine contemplation, who read daily from the book of wisdom, as though they shall copy into the chapters of their hearts whatever transparent realizations of truth they grasp; and further, but what are the hearts of those who judge in all truth by divine power taught, unless decrees of the canons? (Richard of St. Victor, On Judicial Power, PL 196:1182.)

But because judging implies an action that proceeds into another, a person is properly speaking said to judge who imposes a sentence on another by speaking. But this happens in two ways. In one way, from his own authority, and this properly belongs to that person who has dominion and power over the others, to whose control those who are judged are subject, and it belongs to him to impose justice on them. And in this way to judge belongs to God alone. In another way to judge is to make the sentence handed down by another’s authority known to others, which is to announce the sentence delivered. And this is the way that perfect men shall judge, for they shall lead others into the awareness of divine justice, so that they may know what is justly owed to them for their merits, so that the very revelation of justice may be called judgment. This is why Richard of St. Victor says, the judges to open before those to be judged the books of their own decrees, it is to admit to the inspection of their own hearts what they have seen of any of their inferiors, and to reveal its meaning in those things that pertain to the judgment. (Ibid.)

Reply Obj. 1: That objection proceeds from the judgment of authority which will apply to Christ alone.

And the same should be said to the second objection.

Reply Obj. 3: It is not unfitting for some of the saints to reveal certain things to others, either by the mode of illumination, as the higher angels illuminate the lower ones, or by the mode of speech, as when inferiors speak to superiors.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that judicial power is especially owed to poverty for three reasons. First, by reason of congruity: for voluntary poverty belongs to those who cling to Christ alone, having rejected everything that is of the world. And therefore there is not anything that turns their judgment away from justice, and so they are rendered adept at judging, as loving the truth of justice above all things. Second, by way of merit, exaltation for merit corresponds to humility. But among all the things that make a man despised in this world, poverty is chief, which is also why the excellence of judicial power is promised to the poor, so that then whoever humbles himself for Christ’s sake shall be exalted. Third, because poverty disposes one to the manner of judging mentioned above. For as is clear from what has been said, the reason any of the saints will be said to judge is that he will have a heart instructed in all divine truth, which he will be able to manifest to others. But while on the path to perfection, the first thing that must be relinquished are external riches, for they are the last acquired. Now what is last in generation is first in destruction, and so it is that among the beatitudes, by which progress is made toward perfection, poverty is set forth first. And thus power to judge corresponds to poverty, inasmuch as it is the first disposition to this power. And so it is that this power is not promised to every poor person, even voluntary ones, but only to those who, leaving everything behind, follow Christ according to perfection of life.

Reply Obj. 1: As Augustine says in the City of God 20: neither ought we to suppose that only twelve men shall judge along with him, though he says that they shall sit upon twelve thrones; otherwise, since we read that Matthias was ordained an apostle in the place of Judas the traitor, Paul should have no throne of judgment, though he labored more than all the others. Therefore by the number twelve is signified the completeness of the multitude of those who shall judge, for the two parts of the number seven, that is to say four and three, multiplied by one another, make twelve. (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 5, n. 3.) Now, seven is the number of perfection. Or it may be because of the fact that twelve consists of two times six, which is a perfect number, or because in that text he was speaking to the twelve apostles, in the persons of whom he was promising this to all their adherents.

Reply Obj. 2: Virginity and martyrdom are not so disposed to retaining the decrees of divine justice in the heart as poverty is, just as on the other hand outward riches choke the word of God by one’s concern for them, as it says in Luke 8. (Luke 8, vv. 7 and 14.) Or it could be said that poverty alone is not sufficient for meriting the power to judge, but because it is the first part of the perfection which the power to judge corresponds to, among those things that follow upon poverty, leading to perfection, virginity and martyrdom and all the works of perfection can be counted. However they are not as foundational as poverty, for the beginning is the greater part of a thing.

Reply Obj. 3: The person who has set forth the law or has exhorted people to the good shall judge causally, for some shall be judged by being compared with the word he set out; and therefore judging power does not correspond to preaching or doctrine properly speaking. Or it could be said, according to some people, that three things are required for the power to judge. First, abdication of temporal cares, lest the soul should be impeded from the reception of wisdom. Second, a habit is required containing divine justice known and observed. Third, that he has taught others that justice; and in this way teaching will be the perfection completing the merit of the power of judging.

Reply Obj. 4: In being judged unjustly, Christ humbled himself, for he was offered up because he willed it. And the reward of humility is exaltation in judgeship, by which all things are subjected to him, as it says in Philippians 2. (Implied in vv. 9–10 of Philippians 2.) And thus judging power is due more to those who voluntarily humble themselves by giving up temporal goods, for which men are honored by the worldly, than to those who are humbled by others.

Reply Obj. 5: The lower cannot judge the higher by his own authority, but he can however by the authority of a higher, as is seen in the case of those delegated by judges. And thus it is not unfitting if this reward is given almost incidentally to the poor, that they judge others, even those who are more excellent in merit with respect to the essential reward.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that the judge’s counselors should be like the judge or analogous to him. Now judgment is attributed to the Son, for he shall appear according to his human nature before all, the good as well as the wicked, although the whole Trinity will judge by authority. And therefore it is also fitting that the judge’s counselors should have human nature, in which they can be seen by all the good and the wicked. And thus it does not befit angels to judge, although the angels could also be said to judge in a certain way, namely by approving the sentence.

Reply Obj. 1: As is seen in the Gloss at the same place, the angels will come with Christ, not as judges, but so that they might be witnesses of human acts, as those under whose guardianship men acted well or wickedly.

Reply Obj. 2: The name ‘thrones’ is attributed to angels by reason of that judgment that God always excercises, in governing all things most justly, and the angels are in some way the executors and promulgators of this judgment. But the judgment that Christ as man will make concerning all men will also require human counselors.

Reply Obj. 3: Equality with the angels is promised to men as to the essential reward. Nevertheless nothing prevents some incidental reward from being presented to men that will not be given to the angels, as is seen in the crown of special distinction (Aquinas uses the term aureola, or “little crown” to express an added distinction in addition to the aurea, “golden crown” or “halo” that represents the essential reward of beatitude.) given to virgins and martyrs; and the same thing can be said about the power to judge.

Response to Quaestiuncula 4

To the fourth question, it should be said that concerning this two opinions are mentioned by the Master in the text, and both seem to fit with God’s justice. For by the fact that a man sins, he is justly subjected to the demons, but the demons unjustly have charge of him. Therefore the opinion that holds that in the future after the day of judgment demons will not have charge over men in punishment regards the order of divine justice on the part of the demons who punish. But the contrary opinion regards the order of divine justice on the part of the men who are punished.

Now, we cannot know with certainty which one of these is more true. However, I consider as more true that just as the order will be preserved in those who are saved such that certain people will be illuminated and perfected by certain others, because the orders of the heavenly hierarchy will be perpetual; so too there will be an order in punishments, so that men shall be punished by demons, lest the divine order by which he has established angels as intermediaries between divine and human nature should be entirely destroyed. And therefore just as divine illuminations are conveyed to men by the good angels, so too the demons are the executors of divine justice in the wicked. Nor in this would there be any diminishment of the demons’ punishments, for in the fact that they torment others, they themselves shall be tormented. For the company of the miserable there will not diminish misery, but increase it.

Reply Obj. 1: The ruling power that it is said will be dissolved by Christ in the future is to be taken as the mode of ruling power according to the state of this world, in which both men rule over men, and angels over men, and angels over angels, and demons over demons, and demons over men; and all this is for the sake of leading toward the end or leading away from the end. However, on that day, since all things will have arrived at their end, there will not be a ruling power leading toward the end, but preserving both good and wicked in the end.

Reply Obj. 2: Although the merit of the demons does not require that they be set over men, for men unjustly make themselves subject to them, nevertheless, the order of their own nature to human nature requires this; for natural goods remain complete in them, as Dionysius says in chapter 4 of the Divine Names. (Pseudo-Dionysius, On the Divine Names, ch. 4, n. 23, PG 3:726.)

Reply Obj. 3: Good angels are not the principal cause of the reward for the elect, for all men receive this directly from God. But nevertheless angels are the causes of certain incidental rewards for men, inasmuch as by the higher angels both lower angels and men are illuminated about certain secrets of divine things that do not pertain to the substance of beatitude. And in the same way the damned also receive their principal punishment directly from God, namely, the perpetual exclusion from the divine vision. But it is not unfitting that other sensible punishments be inflicted on men by demons. However, there is this difference, that merit exalts but sin degrades; and this is why although angelic nature is higher than human nature, some people will be exalted so much because of the excellence of their merit that their exaltation will exceed the height of nature and reward in some of the angels. This is also why some of the angels will be illuminated by some men; but no human sinners will come to that eminence that is due to the nature of the demons because of the degree of their malice.

Article 3

About those who will be judged in the judgment

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the third question, we proceed thus. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 43, a. 1, qa. 2, ad 1; Super Matt. 25; Super II Cor. 5, lec. 2; Comp. theo. 243.) It seems that not all human beings will appear together in the judgment. For it says in Matthew 19:28: you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel. But not all men belong to those twelve tribes. Therefore it seems that not all people will appear together.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, we reach the same conclusion from what is said in Psalm 1:5: the wicked will not stand in the judgment. But there are many people like that. Therefore they shall not appear together at the judgment.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, a person is led to the judgment so that his merits may be presented. But there are some people who had no merits, like children who died before a mature age. Therefore it is not necessary for them to appear with everyone else at the judgment.

On the contrary (1), it is said in Acts 10:42, that Christ is the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead. But all people are included in these two categories, no matter how the living may be distinguished from the dead. Therefore all people shall appear at the judgment.

Furthermore (2), it says in Revelation 1:7: behold, he is coming with the clouds and every eye shall see him. Now this would not be the case if all men did not appear together at the judgment.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that no good men will be judged at the judgment. (Parallels: Super Matt. 25; Super II Cor. 5, lec. 2; Super Heb. 10, lec. 3; Super Ps. 1; Comp. theo. 243.) For whoever believes in him will not be judged (John 3:18). But all good people believed in him. Therefore they will not be judged.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, those whose beatitude is uncertain are not happy; by which fact Augustine proves that the demons were never happy. (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 11, ch. 11 and ch. 15.) But holy men are happy now. Therefore they are certain of their own beatitude. But what is certain will not be brought forth into the judgment. Therefore the good will not be judged.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, fear is opposed to beatitude. But the last judgment, which is said to be most awe-inspiring, could not take place without the fear of those who are to be judged. This is why, commenting on Job 41:25, when he shall raise him up, the angels shall fear, Gregory says, let us consider how the conscience of the wicked shall be shattered upon that day, when even the lives of the just shall be shaken up. (Gregory the Great, Moralia in Iob (CCSL 143B), Bk. 34, par. 7.) Therefore the blessed shall not be judged.

On the contrary (1), it seems that all the good shall be judged. For it says in 2 Corinthians 5:10: we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each one may receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body. But this is nothing other than to be judged. Therefore all people shall be judged.

Furthermore (2), the universal includes everything. But that judgment is called ‘universal’. Therefore all people will be judged.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that no wicked men will be judged. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 43, a. 1, qa. 2, ad 1; Super Matt. 25; Super II Cor. 5, lec. 2; Super Heb. 10, lec. 3; Super I Cor. 5, lec. 3; Super Ps. 1; Comp. theo. 243.) For the damnation of unbelievers is certain, just as is the damnation of those who died in mortal sin. But it says in John 3:18: whoever does not believe is already judged, because of the certitude of their damnation. Therefore by the same argument, other sinners will also not be judged.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, the voice of the judge is most terrible to those who are condemned by judgment. But, as we have in the text from the words of Gregory, no speech will be made by the judge to the unbelievers. Therefore if it were made to those of the faithful who were to be damned, unbelievers would gain an advantage from their unbelief, which is absurd.

On the contrary, it seems that all the wicked will be judged. For punishment will be inflicted upon all the wicked according to the amount of their guilt. But this cannot happen without the sentence of the judgment. Therefore all the wicked will be judged.

Quaestiuncula 4

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that angels will be judged in the future. (Parallels: ST III, q. 59, a. 6; Super I Cor. 6, lec. 1.) For it says in 1 Corinthians 6:3: do you not know that we are to judge angels? But this could not be referring to the state of the present time. Therefore this must refer to the future judgment.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, in Job 41:9 it says of the Behemoth, which we understand as the devil: in the sight of all he shall be cast down; and in Mark 1:24 the demon exclaimed to Christ*: have you come before the time to destroy us?* And the Gloss (Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:183.) says at the same place that the demons, recognizing the Lord on earth, believed they would be judged right then. Therefore it seems that a final judgment is reserved for them.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, Scripture says: God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment (2 Pet 2:4). Therefore it seems that the angels will be judged.

On the contrary (1), God does not judge the same person twice. But the wicked angels have already been judged, which is why our Lord says: the ruler of this world has already been judged (John 16:11). Therefore the angels will not be judged in the future.

Furthermore (2), the goodness and wickedness of the angels is more complete than that of any men in the wayfaring state. But some good and bad men will not be judged, as it says in the text. Therefore the good and bad angels will not be judged.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, the power of judging was conferred on Christ as a man to reward the humility that he displayed in the Passion. Now in his Passion he shed his blood sufficiently for all, although it did not take effect in all because of the impediment that it encountered in some people. And therefore it is fitting that all humans be brought together in the judgment to see his exaltation in human nature, according to which he has been established by God as judge of the living and the dead.

Reply Obj. 1: As Augustine says in the City of God 20: (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 5, n. 3.) the fact that it was said, ‘you shall judge the twelve tribes of Israel,’ does not mean that the tribe of Levi, which was thirteenth, will not be judged, or that only that people will be judged, and not all the other nations as well. Therefore however all other nations are signified by the twelve tribes, since all nations are called by Christ to the inheritance of the twelve tribes.

Reply Obj. 2: When it says the wicked shall not rise at the judgment, if it refers to all sinners, then it should be understood as meaning they will not rise to judge. But if ‘the wicked’ means unbelievers, then it should be understood as meaning that they will not rise to be judged, for they have already been judged; but all shall rise, so that they may appear together at the judgment to behold the glory of the judge.

Reply Obj. 3: Even children who die before reaching maturity shall appear at the judgment; but not so that they may be judged, but so that they may see the glory of the Judge.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that there are two things that pertain to the judgment: namely, the weighing of merits, and the awarding of recompense. Therefore as to the reception of recompense, all will be judged, even the good, in that each person will receive from the divine sentence the reward that corresponds to his merit. But there will only be a weighing of merits where there is some mixture of good merits with bad deeds. Now those who build on a foundation of faith with gold and silver and precious stones, completely persevere in the service of God; since they have no significant admixture of bad deeds to be repaid, there is no place for a weighing of their merits, just as those who have completely relinquished the things of the world think with anxious care only on what is of God; and thus they will be saved, but they will not be judged. But those who build on a foundation of faith with wood, hay, and stubble, (Cf. 1 Corinthians 3:12; see also Distinction 21, question 1, article 2, on whether “wood, hay, and stubble” will be purged in purgatory.) namely, those who still love worldly things and are caught up in earthly dealings, yet they place nothing above Christ, but strive to expiate their sins with almsgiving, do have some admixture of bad with their good merits; and thus the presenting of merits will take place among them; and they will be judged for this, and yet they will be saved.

Reply Obj. 1: Because punishment is an effect of justice, while reward belongs to mercy, punishment is attributed to God and to judgment, which is an act of justice, antonomastically, so that sometimes judgment is taken for the act of condemnation; and this is how the authority cited may be understood, as is clear from the Gloss on the same text.

Reply Obj. 2: The weighing of merits in the elect will not be for the sake of removing doubt about their beatitude from the hearts of those being judged, but so that the supremacy of their good merits over their bad deeds may be shown manifestly to all; and thus God’s justice may be attested.

Reply Obj. 3: Gregory is speaking of the just people still abiding in mortal flesh. This is why he stated beforehand, those who will be found in the body, however strong and perfect they may be, since they are still in the flesh, cannot but be struck with dread in such a whirlwind of terror. This shows that this terror is to be referred to the time immediately preceding the judgment, which will certainly be a thing to be dreaded by the wicked, but not by the good, for whom there will be no apprehension of evil.

However, the arguments to the contrary proceed from an idea of judgment as the recompense of rewards.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that the judgment that is the recompense of punishment for sins applies to all the wicked; but the judgment that is the weighing of sins only applies to believers, for among unbelievers there is no foundation of faith, and when that is absent, all subsequent works will lack perfect rightness of intention. Therefore there is not any mixture of good merits with their bad deeds which would require weighing. But the faithful in whom there remains a foundation of faith, at least have a praiseworthy act of faith which, although it is not meritorious without charity, nevertheless in itself is ordered toward merit. And thus among them there is a role for the weighing of merits. Therefore believers, who were at least citizens of the city of God in number, will be judged as citizens, in whom no sentencing to death will be handed down without pleading their merits. But unbelievers will be condemned as enemies, who, among men, are usually executed without listening to their merits.

Reply Obj. 1: Although for those who die in mortal sin, their damnation is evident, nevertheless because they have certain things connected with them that pertain to meriting, it is necessary for the manifestation of divine justice that there be a weighing of their merits, by which it is demonstrated that they are justly excluded from the city of the saints, to which they seemed outwardly to belong.

Reply Obj. 2: That speech understood spiritually, will not be bitter to the faithful who are condemned in this respect: that it will manifest certain things that are pleasing to them, which cannot be found among the unbelievers. For without faith it is impossible to please him (Heb 11:6). But the sentence of condemnation, which will be delivered against all, will be terrible to all.

The arguments to the contrary proceed from the notion of judgment as retribution.

Response to Quaestiuncula 4

To the fourth question, it should be said that the judgment as weighing of merits will in no way take place among the good angels or the bad angels, for among the good no evil can be found, nor can any good pertaining to judgment be found among the bad angels. But if we were speaking about the judgment as retribution, then two kinds of retribution must be distinguished. One corresponds to the proper merits of the angels; and this one happened to both kinds of angels at the beginning, when some were raised to beatitude while others were cast into wretchedness.

The other retribution corresponds to the good merits or the bad demerits procured by the angels, and this retribution will happen at the future judgment, for the good angels will have deeper joy at the salvation of those whom they have influenced to merit, and the wicked angels will be further tormented for having multiplied the destruction of the wicked, who were incited to evil deeds by them. Therefore, in a direct sense, there will be no judgment of the angels, whether as judges or as those to be judged, but only a judgment of men; but indirectly judgment has to do with angels in a certain respect, inasmuch as they were intermingled with the acts of men.

Reply Obj. 1: The Apostle’s word is to be understood as concerning the judgment of comparison, for some people will be found superior to some angels.

Reply Obj. 2: The demons themselves, in the sight of all, will be cast down on that day, for they will be driven into the dungeon of hell forever, so that they will not be free to go outside, for this was only granted to them as ordained by divine providence for training men’s lives.

And the third objection should be answered in the same way.

Question 2

The fire at judgment

Next we inquire about the fire that will go before the face of the judge; and here three questions arise:

first, the purification of the world by future fire;

• second, the effect of the purifying fire;
• third, the order between that fire and the other things that will be done at the judgment.
• Article 1

The purification of the world by future fire

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the first question, we proceed thus. (Parallel: SCG IV, ch. 97.) It seems that there will be no purification of the world. For only what is unclean needs purification. But God’s creatures are not unclean, which is why it says in Acts 10:15, what God created, you may not call common, that is, unclean. Therefore the creatures of the world will not be purified.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, purification according to divine justice is ordered toward the removal of the uncleanness of guilt, as is clear from the purification that happens after death. But in this world’s elements there can be no infection of guilt. Therefore it seems that they do not need purification.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, a thing is said to be purified when anything that is foreign and debasing to it is separated from it. For a separation from what ennobles something is not called purification, but rather diminishment. But it pertains to the perfection and nobility of the elements that something of a foreign nature is mixed with them, for the form of a mixed body is nobler than a simple form. Therefore it seems that the elements of this world cannot be purified in any way.

On the contrary (1), every renewal happens by some purification. But the elements will be renewed; which is why it says, I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away (Rev 21:1). Therefore the elements will be purified.

Furthermore (2), commenting upon 1 Corinthians 7:31, the form of this world is passing away, the Gloss says: (Derived from Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 16.) the beauty of this world shall perish in a conflagration of worldy fires; and so the same as before.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that this future purification will not be by fire. (Parallel: SCG IV, ch. 97.) For since fire is a part of the world, it needs purification like the other parts. But the same thing cannot be both purifier and purified. Therefore it seems that fire will not purify.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, just as fire has purifying power, so does water. Therefore since not everything can be purified by fire, but some things must be purified by water, as even the Old Law distinguishes, it seems that fire will not purify, at least not universally.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, purification seems to pertain to the parts of the world being made purer by being separated from each other. But at the beginning of the world the separation of the parts of the world from each other happened by divine power, for this is how the work of distinction is defined; and this is why Anaxagoras held that separation was the act of the intellect moving all things. (Aristotle, Physics, Bk. 8, ch. 9, 265b21–22.) Therefore it seems that in the end of the world purification is accomplished directly by God, and not through fire.

On the contrary (1), it says in Psalm 49 (50):3: before him is a devouring fire, and round about him a mighty tempest; and what follows afterward about the judgment: he has called to the heavens above and to the earth that he may judge his people (Ps 50:3–4). Therefore it seems that the last purification of the world will be by fire.

Furthermore (2), it says in 2 Peter 3:12: the heavens will be kindled and dissolved, and the elements will melt with fire. Therefore that purification will happen by fire.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that that fire will not be of the same species as the element fire. For nothing consumes itself. But that fire will consume the four elements, as the Gloss on 2 Peter 3 says. (Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:694.) Therefore that fire will not be of the same species as the element fire.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, just as power is manifest by operation, so too is nature manifest by power. But that fire will have a different power from the fire that is an element, namely, because it will purify the universe, which the other fire cannot do. Therefore it will not be of the same species as it.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, things that are of the same species in natural bodies have the same kind of motion. But that fire will have a different kind of motion from the element fire, for it will be moved all around so that it can purify everything. Therefore, that fire will not be of the same species with it.

On the contrary (1), Augustine in the City of God 20, (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 16.) and what we have in the Gloss on 1 Corinthians 7:31, say that the form of this world shall perish in a conflagration of worldly fires. Therefore that fire will be of the nature of the fire that now exists in this world.

Furthermore (2), just as the future purification will be by fire, so was the preceding one by water: and both are referred to in 2 Peter 3:5–7. But in the first purification the water was of the same species as water the element. Therefore also in the second purification the fire will be of the same species as the element fire.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, because the world was made in a certain way for the sake of man, it is necessary that when man is glorified according to the body, all the other corporeal things of the world should also change to a better state, so that the place may be more suitable and the appearance more delightful. Now for human beings to obtain the glory of the body, those things that are opposed to glory must first be removed. And there are two of these, namely, corruption and the infection of sin; for as it says in 1 Corinthians 15:50, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable; and all the unclean are outside the city of glory in Revelation 22:15. And likewise too the elements of the world must be purified from contrary dispositions before they may be brought into the newness of glory, proportionally to what was said of man. Now although physical things could not properly be subject to the infection of sin, nevertheless sin leaves behind in physical things a certain unfittingness for being consecrated to spiritual functions; and hence we see that places where crimes have been committed are not considered suitable for anything sacred to be performed there, unless some purification happens first. And in keeping with this the part of the world that falls to our use takes on from mankind’s sins a certain unsuitableness for the reception of glory; and thus it needs a cleansing from this. Likewise too around there are many corruptions, generations, and alterations that detract from the purity of the elements around the intermediate place (The “intermediate place” is the whole area in between the earth, to which heavy bodies sink, and the rotating body of the heavens.) because of the contact of the elements; and so the elements must be purified from these in order to receive the newness of glory in a more becoming fashion.

Reply Obj. 1: When it says all God’s creation is clean, this should be understood as meaning that it does not have in its substance any admixture of wickedness, as the Manichees held, saying that good and evil were two substances divided in some places and intermingled in others. But it does not prevent some of creation from having the commingling of a foreign nature, which nature is also good in itself, but opposed to the perfection of this particular creature. Likewise it does not prevent evil from attaching to a certain creation, although it is not mixed into it as though it were a part of its own substance.

Reply Obj. 2: Although physical elements cannot be subject to guilt, nevertheless from a sin committed among them they can contract a certain inaptness for receiving the perfection of glory.

Reply Obj. 3: The form of a mixed thing and the form of an element can be considered in two ways: either as to the perfection of the species, and then a mixed body is more noble; or as to the perpetuity of its duration, and then a simple body is more noble, for it does not have within it what would corrupt it, unless its corruption happened from something external. Now a mixed body has in itself the cause of its own corruption, namely, composition out of contraries; and thus a simple body, even if it is corruptible in part is nevertheless incorruptible as a whole, which cannot be said of a mixed one. And since incorruption belongs to the perfection of glory, the perfection of a simple body befits more the perfection of glory than the perfection of a mixed body, unless the mixed body should also have within it some principle of incorruption, like the human body, whose form is incorruptible. Yet nevertheless although a mixed body is in some way more noble than a simple one, a simple body existing on its own has a more noble being than a simple body existing in a mixed one; for in a mixed body there are simple bodies in potency in some way, while in themselves they are things existing in their final perfection.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that that purification of the world, as has been said, will remove the imperfection of the world left behind by sin, and the impurity of commingling, and it will dispose the world for the perfection of glory. And thus it will be most appropriately accomplished by fire in three respects. First, because since fire is the most noble of the elements, it has natural properties more like the properties of glory, as is most evident in the case of light. Second, because fire does not admit as much mixture of anything foreign as the other elements, because of the efficacy of its active power. Third, because the sphere of fire is remote from our habitation, nor is fire’s use so common to us as earth and water and air, so that it is not infected as much; and besides this it has the greatest efficacy for purifying and dividing by refining.

Reply Obj. 1: Fire does not come into our use as it is in its proper matter (for then it is far removed from us), but only as it exists in foreign matter; and in this respect the world itself could be purified by fire existing in its pure state because it has something added from without.

Reply Obj. 2: The first purification of the world which happened through the flood, only had to do with the infection of sin. Now at that time the sin of concupiscence particularly predominated, and so the purification happened most fittingly through its contrary, namely, water. But the second purification looks both to the infection of sin and the impurity of commingling; and for both it is more fitting that it be done by fire than by water. For water does not have the force of dividing, but rather of gathering together, which is why impurities of the elements may not be removed by water as by fire. Likewise too, the vice of tepidity will predominate at the end, as in a world already grown old, for as it says in Matthew 24:12, most men’s love will grow cold; which is why the purification will happen fittingly by fire. Nor is there anything that cannot be purified by fire in some way; but there are some things that cannot be purified by fire without their own corruption, such as cloth, and wooden vessels and the like; and these are the things the Law prescribed to be purified by water; though all of them will be corrupted by fire in the end.

Reply Obj. 3: By the work of distinction different forms are united in things in which they are distinguished from each other; and therefore it could not be done except by the one who is author of nature. But by the final purification things will be returned to the purity in which they were established; and therefore in this, a created nature could perform a ministry for the Creator; and the ministry is committed to a created being because such a ministry contributes to its nobility.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that we find three opinions about this.

For some people say that the element fire which is in its own sphere will descend for the purification of the world. And they claim that it will descend by multiplication: for fire expands in all directions when it is placed near anything combustible; and this shall especially happen then, when the power of fire will be raised above all the other elements. But against this seems to be that that fire will not only descend but is also held to rise by the saints, as is clear from 2 Peter 3, where it seems that the fire of judgment shall rise as much as the water of the flood. This makes it seem that the fire will be in the intermediate place of generation.

And because of this others say that that fire will be generated around the earth by a convergence of rays from the heavenly bodies, as we see are brought together in a burning mirror; but on that day there will be arched clouds in place of mirrors, toward which the rays will reflect. But neither does this seem fitting, for since the effect of the heavenly bodies follows their determinate positions and appearances, if the fire were generated by the power of heavenly bodies, the time of that purification would be known to those who examine the movements of the stars; which is opposed to Scripture.

And therefore others say, following Augustine, that just as the flood occurred by an inundation of earthly waters, so shall the form of this world perish in a conflagration of earthly fires, as it says in the City of God 20. (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 16.) But this conflagration is nothing other than the convergence of all the higher and lower causes that have the power of igniting by their own nature; and indeed this convergence will be done not in the natural course of things but by divine power; and from all those causes brought together the fire will be generated that will incinerate the face of this world.

However, if these opinions were rightly considered, they are found to be different in the cause of that generating, and not in its species. For fire generated by the sun or by a lower heat-source is of the same species as fire that is in its own sphere, except to the extent that foreign material is mixed with it, which will certainly have to happen on that day, for fire cannot purify anything except according as its material is made into something else in some way. Therefore it must simply be granted that that fire will be of the same species with ours.

Reply Obj. 1: Although that fire is of the same species with the fire that we have, nevertheless it is not the same in number. However we see that when two fires have the same species one destroys the other, namely, the greater one destroys the lesser one, by consuming its matter; and likewise too that fire could consume the fire that we have.

Reply Obj. 2: Just as the activity that proceeds from a thing’s power is an indicator of that power, so too a power is an indicator of an essence or nature that proceeds from the principles essential to the thing. Now an activity that does not proceed from the power of the thing operating does not indicate its power, as is seen in instruments, for the action of an instrument manifests the power of an agent rather than the power of the instrument; for it manifests the power of the agent as the first principle of the operation, but it does not manifest the power of the instrument except insofar as it is susceptible to the influence of the principal agent, as it is moved by him. In the same way a power that does not proceed from the essential principles of a thing does not manifest its nature, except as to its susceptibilities; as the power by which heated water can make something hot does not manifest its nature except in being heatable; and therefore nothing prevents water that has this power from being of the same species as water that does not have this power. Likewise too it is not inappropriate that that fire which will have the force to purify the face of the world, is of a different species from the fire that is with us, since the heating force does not arise in it from essential principles, but from divine operation. Or it could be said that that power is a certain absolute quality, like heat in heated water; or a certain intention, as was said about instrumental power in Distinction 1; and this is more probable, because that fire only acts as an instrument of divine power.

Reply Obj. 3: Fire by its own nature is only borne upward; but inasmuch as it follows the matter that it requires when existing outside its proper sphere, it follows the position of the combustible matter; and in this way it is not unfitting that it be moved either in a circle or backward, and especially according as it acts as an instrument of divine power.

Article 2

The effect of the purifying fire

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the second question, we proceed thus. (Parallels: Super Heb. 12, lec. 5; SCG IV, ch. 97.) It seems that that fire will also purify the upper heavens. For in Psalm 102 (101):25–26 it says: the heavens are the work of thy hands. They will perish, but thou dost endure. But the upper heavens are also works of God’s hands. Therefore they too will perish in that final conflagration.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, it says in 2 Peter 3:12: the heavens will be kindled and dissolved, and the elements will melt with fire. But the heavens that are distinguished from the elements are the upper heavens, in which the stars are fixed. Therefore it seems that they too shall be purified by that fire.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, that fire is for removing the indisposition to the perfection of glory from corporeal things. But in the upper heaven an indisposition is found both on the side of guilt, because the devil sinned there; and on the side of natural defect, because commenting on Romans 8:22: we know that the whole creation has been groaning in travail together until now, the Gloss says: (Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:497.) all the elements labor to fulfill their offices, as the sun and moon do not fill the spaces allotted to them without labor. Therefore the heavens too will be purified by fire.

On the contrary (1), heavenly bodies are not susceptible to wandering impressions.

Furthermore (2), commenting on 2 Thessalonians 1:7–8: the Lord Jesus . . . in flaming fire inflicting vengeance, the Gloss says: there will be fire in the world that will go before him, occupying as much space of air as the water filled in the flood. But the water of the flood did not rise to the upper heavens, but only fifteen cubits above the height of the mountains, as we have in Genesis 7:20. Therefore the upper heavens will not be purified by that fire.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that that fire shall consume the other elements. (Parallel: SCG IV, ch. 97.) For commenting on 2 Peter 3, Bede’s Gloss (See Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:694.) says: the greatest element, fire, shall consume the four elements in which the world consists; nor shall all be consumed so that they do not exist; but it shall consume two entirely, but two it shall restore as better. Therefore it seems that at least two elements will be completely destroyed by that fire.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, it says in Revelation 21:1: the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and the sea was no more. But by heaven the air is understood, as Augustine says, (Augustine, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (CSEL 28.1), Bk. 3, par. 1.) while the sea is the collection of waters. Therefore it seems that those three elements will be completely destroyed.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, fire only purifies to the extent that other things are made its matter. Therefore if fire purifies the other elements, they would have to become its matter. Therefore they must pass into the nature of fire; and so they would be corrupted from their own natures.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, the form of fire is the noblest form to which elemental matter can be brought. But in that purification all things will be transformed into their noblest state. Therefore the other elements shall be entirely converted into fire.

On the contrary (1), in the commentary on 1 Corinthians 7:31: the form of this world is passing away, it says: the beauty, not the substance of this world is passing. But the very substance of the elements pertains to the perfection of the world. Therefore the elements shall not be consumed according to their substance.

Furthermore (2), that final purification that will happen by fire, will correspond to the first purification, which happened by water. But that one did not corrupt the substance of the elements. Therefore neither will the one that happens by fire corrupt them.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that neither will all the elements be purified by that fire. For as has already been said, that fire will only ascend as high as the waters of the flood. But the water of the flood did not arrive at the sphere of fire. Therefore neither will the element of fire be purified by the last purification.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, commenting on Revelation 21:1, I saw a new heaven and a new earth, the Gloss says: (Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:746.) the transformation of the earth and air by fire is not to be doubted, but there are doubts about the water, for it is believed to have its purification in itself. Therefore at least it is not known for certain that all elements will be purified.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, a place that is of perpetual infection is never purified. But in hell there will be perpetual infection. Therefore since hell is situated among the elements, it seems that the elements will not be entirely purified.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, the earthly paradise is contained on earth. But it will not be purified by fire, for neither did the waters of the flood rise to it, as Bede says, and as we have in Book II, Distinction 27. Therefore it seems that the elements will not all be purified.

On the contrary, in the Gloss cited above on 2 Peter 3, we have that that fire will consume the four elements.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, the purification of the world is so that dispositions contrary to the perfection of glory may be removed from physical things, as was said above; indeed this perfection is the final consummation of things, and indeed the present indisposition is found in all physical things, but differently in different ones. For in some an indisposition is found from something inhering in their substance, as in lower bodies, which depart from their proper purity by being mixed with each other. But in some bodies an indisposition is found not by anything else inhering in their substance, as in the heavenly bodies, in which nothing is found opposed to the final perfection of the universe, except movement, which is a path to perfection; nor is it any movement, but only local movement, which does not change anything that is intrinsic to a thing, like substance or quantity, or quality, but only the place, which is outside the thing. And therefore nothing need be removed from the substance of the upper heaven, but its motion must be stilled. Now a stillness of local motion does not happen by the action of any contrary agent, but by the moving force ceasing to move; and thus the heavenly bodies will not be purified by fire or by the action of any created thing, but their own stilling, occurring solely by divine will, will take the place of purification for them.

Reply Obj. 1: As Augustine says in the City of God 20, (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 24.) those words in the Psalms should be understood as referring to the aereal heavens, which will be purified by the fire of the final conflagration. Or it could be said that if it is understood to refer also to the upper heavens, then they are being said to perish with regard to the motion by which they now move constantly.

Reply Obj. 2: Peter explains which heavens he means. For before the words quoted he stated that the first heaven and earth had perished by water, which he now restates in the same place, are reserved for fire on the day of judgment. Therefore those heavens will be purified by fire that were purified before by the water of the flood, namely, the heaven of air.

Reply Obj. 3: That travail and that slavery of creation that is attributed to the heavenly bodies by Ambrose (In fact, Ambrosiaster.) is nothing other than the ongoing change of motion that subjects them to time, and the lack of that final consummation they will ultimately have. Also, the empyreal heaven did not contract any infection from the sin of the demons, for they were immediately expelled from heaven when they sinned.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that concerning this question there are many opinions.

For some people say that all the elements will remain as to their matter, but all will be changed as to their imperfection; but two of them, air and earth, will retain their proper substantial form, while in two, fire and water, their substantial form will not remain but they will be changed into the form of the heaven. And in this way three elements, namely, fire, air, and water, will be called the heaven, although air will retain the same substantial form that it has now, for it is also called ‘heaven’ now. This is also why in Revelation 21:1, mention is only made of heaven and earth: he says, I saw a new heaven and a new earth. But this opinion is completely absurd, for it is opposed both to philosophy, according to which it cannot be held that lower corporeal things are in potency to the form of heaven, since they neither have any common matter nor contrariety to each other; as well as to theology, for according to this position the perfection of the universe will not be preserved with the integrity of its parts, if two elements are taken away. Therefore by saying heaven, a fifth corporeal thing is understood; but all the elements are understood by earth, as it says in Psalm 148:7: praise the Lord from the earth; and afterward it says: fire and hail, snow and frost (Ps 148:8).

And so others say that all the elements will remain according to their substance, but active and passive qualities will be removed from them, as they also hold that in a mixed body the elements will be saved according to their own substantial forms without having their proper qualities, since they are reduced to a middle thing, and the middle belongs to neither of the extremes. And this seems to agree with what Augustine says in the City of God 20: (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 16.) by this universal conflagration the qualities of the corruptible elements which suited our corruptible bodies shall utterly perish, and our substance shall receive such qualities as shall, by a wonderful transmutation, harmonize with our immortal bodies. But since the proper qualities of the elements are the effects of substantial forms, it does not seem probable that those qualities could be changed while the substantial forms remain, except by a violent action for a time; as we see in the case of hot water that by the force of its own species, it returns to the coldness that it had lost through the action of the fire, while the species of water remains. And furthermore those very elemental qualities are also of the elements’ second perfection, like their proper passions. Nor is it probable that in that final consummation anything of natural perfection would be removed from the elements.

And therefore it should be said that the elements shall remain as to their substance and proper qualities, but they will be purified, as was said above, from the infection that they contracted from men’s sins, and from the impurity that occurs in them from mutual action and being acted upon: for once the movement of the first moving thing has stopped, mutual action and being acted upon could not exist in lower elements; and this is what Augustine calls the qualities of corruptible elements, namely, their unnatural dispositions, according to which they tend toward corruption.

Reply Obj. 1: That fire is said to consume the four elements inasmuch as it will purify them in some way. However, what follows, it will consume two entirely, is not to be understood as meaning two elements will be destroyed according to their substance, but that two will be more removed from the properties that they now possess, which two indeed are said by some people to be fire and water, which have the most extreme active qualities, namely, heat and cold, which are the greatest principles of corruption in other bodies. And since on that day there will be no action of fire and water, which are the most active, they will seem to be the most changed from the power that they now have. Other people say that the two elements will be air and water, because of the changing motions of those two elements, which result from the movement of the heavenly bodies; and because those motions will not exist (like the ebb and flow of the sea, and the turbulence of the winds, and the like); therefore those elements will be the most changed from the properties that they now possess.

Reply Obj. 2: As Augustine says in the City of God 20, (Ibid.) when it says, and the sea is no longer, the sea can be understood as the present world, about which he had said a little before: the sea gave up its dead. However if we are referring to the sea literally, then it should be said that two things may be considered in the sea: namely, the substance of waters and their disposition to saltiness and the rolling of the waves; and as to this second thing, the sea will not remain, but it will remain as to the first.

Reply Obj. 3: That fire will only act as an instrument of providence and divine power, which is why it will not act on other elements to their full consumption, but only to their purification. Nor is it necessary that what becomes the matter of the fire be corrupted completely from its proper species, as is seen in molten iron, which when removed from the forge returns to its proper and pristine state by the power of the species that remains, and this is how it will also be with the elements that are purified by fire.

Reply Obj. 4: In the particles of the elements, we must consider not only what befits each particle taken in itself, but also what befits it according to its order to the whole. Therefore I say that although water would be more noble if it had the form of fire, likewise earth and air, nevertheless, the universe would be more imperfect if the matter of all the elements took on the form of fire.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that some people say that that fire will rise to the highest point of the space that holds the four elements, so that the elements are completely purified both from the infection of sin, which even the highest parts of the elements are infected with, as is clear from the smoke of idolatry that defiles the highest places; and also from corruption, for elements are corruptible throughout all their parts. But that opinion is opposed to the authority of holy Scripture, for in 2 Peter 3:7 it says that those heavens that had been purified by water were stored up for fire; and Augustine says in the City of God 20, (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 24.) that the world that perished in the flood is reserved for fire. However it is evident that the water of the flood did not ascend to the highest point of the elements’ space, but only to fifteen cubits above the height of the mountains; and furthermore, it is known for certain that neither vapors rising from the earth nor any kind of smoke can pass through the entire sphere of fire so that it would reach its top; and so the infection of sin does not reach to the space mentioned. Nor can the elements be purified from their corruptibility by removing anything that could be consumed by fire; but fire could consume the impurities of the elements that arise from admixture. However, these impurities exist especially around the earth up to the middle layer of air, which is why the fire of the final conflagration will purify the elements up to that space; for even the waters of the flood ascended that high, which can be probably deduced from the height of the mountains which it had surpassed by a determinate measure.

Reply Obj. 1: We concede the first objection.

Reply Obj. 2: A reason for doubt is expressed in the Gloss, namely, because water is believed to have a power of purification within it. Nevertheless it does not have the kind of purifying force required for the future state, as is clear from what has been said.

Reply Obj. 3: The main reason for that purification will be to remove any imperfection from the saints’ dwelling place. And therefore by that purification everything that is ugly will be brought together to the place of the damned, which is why hell will not be purified, but the offscourings of the whole world will be piled there.

Reply Obj. 4: Although the sin of the first man was committed in the earthly paradise, nevertheless that place is not a place of sinners, just as neither is the empyreal heaven, for man and devil were ejected from each place immediately on account of their sin. And so those places do not need purification.

Article 3

The order between that fire and the other things that will be done at the judgment

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the third question, we proceed thus. It seems that the fire of the final conflagration should follow the judgment. In the City of God 20, (Augustine, The City of God (CCSL 48), Bk. 20, ch. 30, n. 5.) Augustine lays down this order for those things that will be in the judgment, saying: at that judgment, or around that judgment, we have learned that these things will come to pass: Elijah the Tishbite shall come, the Jews shall believe, the Antichrist shall persecute, Christ shall judge, the dead shall rise, the good shall be divided from the wicked, the world shall be burned and renewed. Therefore the conflagration follows the judgment.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, Augustine says in the same book: (In ch. 16.) once the wicked have been judged and cast into eternal fire, the face of this world shall perish in a conflagration of earthly fires. Therefore, the same as above.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, when the Lord comes to judge, he will find certain people alive, as is evident from what we have in 1 Thess 4:15, where the Apostle speaks in their person: we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, shall not precede those who have fallen asleep. But this would not be the case if the conflagration of the world went first, for they would be dissolved by the fire. Therefore that fire will follow the judgment.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, the Lord is said to be coming to judge the world by fire; and so the final conflagration seems to be the execution of the divine judgment. But the execution follows judgment. Therefore that fire will follow that judgment.

On the contrary (1), it says in Psalm 97 (96):3: fire goes before him.

Furthermore (2), the resurrection of the body will precede the judgment, otherwise every eye will not behold Christ as judge. But the conflagration of the world will precede the resurrection, for the saints who rise will have spiritual and impassible bodies, and so they will not be able to be purified by fire; while yet the text says from the words of Augustine that if anything needs to be purified in any of them, it will be purified by that fire. Therefore that fire will precede the judgment.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that that fire will not have as much effect on men as is described in the text. For something is said to be consumed when it is reduced to nothing. But the bodies of the wicked will not be dissolved into nothing, but will be preserved for eternity so that they may endure eternal punishment. Therefore that fire will not be the consumption of the wicked, as is said in the text.

Obj. 2: If it be said that it will consume the bodies of the wicked inasmuch as it will resolve them into ashes, then to the contrary. As the bodies of the wicked will be resolved into ashes, so too will the bodies of the good; for it is the privilege of Christ that his flesh should not see corruption. Therefore the good will also be found to be consumed on that day.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the infection of sin is more abundant in elements that go into the composition of a human body in which there is the corruption of the fomes, even in the good, than in those elements existing outside the human body. But the elements existing outside the human body will be purified because of the infection of sin. Therefore much more must the elements that exist in human bodies be purified by fire, whether they exist in the good or the bad; and so the bodies of both must be dissolved.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, as long as the wayfaring state lasts the elements act the same in good people and in bad people. But the wayfaring state will last through that conflagration, for after the wayfaring state there will be no natural death, and yet that conflagration will cause natural death. Therefore that fire will act equally on the good and on the bad; and so it seems that there will not be any difference between them as to receiving the effect of that fire, as the text claims.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, that conflagration will be completed in a moment. But many people will be found alive in whom there will be many things to be purified. Therefore that conflagration will not suffice for their purification.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover. It seems that that fire will not envelops the condemned. For commenting on Malachi 3:3: he will purify the sons of Levi, the Gloss says: we read that there will be two fires: one that purifies the elect and precedes the judgment; the other will torment the condemned. But the latter is the fire of hell, which envelops the wicked, while the first is the fire of the final conflagration. Therefore the fire of the final conflagration will not be the one that envelops the wicked.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, that fire serves God in the purification of the world. Therefore it should be rewarded when the other elements are rewarded, and especially since fire is the most noble of the elements. Therefore it does not seem that it should be cast into hell for the punishment of the damned.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the fire that envelops the wicked will be the fire of hell. But fire was prepared for the damned from the beginning of the world, which is why Matthew 25:41 says: depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. And commenting on Isaiah 30:33: for Topheth has long been prepared; yea, for the king it is made ready, the Gloss says: from yesterday, that is, from the beginning; Tophet, that is the valley of Gehenna. But the fire of the final conflagration was not prepared from the beginning, but will be generated out of the convergence of worldly fires. Therefore that fire is different from the fire of hell, which envelops the condemned.

On the contrary (1), it says in Psalm 97 (96):3, that fire . . . burns up his adversaries round about.

Furthermore (2), commenting on Daniel 7:10: a stream of fire issued and came forth from before him, the Gloss says: so that it might cast the sinners into Gehenna. Now that text is speaking about the fire we are discussing, as is evident from a certain Gloss, which says at that place: so that he may purify the good and punish the bad. Therefore the fire of the final conflagration will sink into hell with the condemned.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, that conflagration according to the truth of the matter will precede the judgment in its beginning, which can be manifestly deduced from the fact that the resurrection of the dead precedes the judgment, as is clear from what is said in 1 Thessalonians 4:17, that also those who sleep shall be taken up into the clouds to meet Christ in the air when he comes for judgment. Now the general resurrection will be simultaneous with the glorification of the bodies of the saints: for when the saints rise they will take up glorified bodies, as is evident from what is said in 1 Corinthians 15:43: it is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory. Now at the same time that the bodies of the saints are glorified, all creation will also be renewed in its own fashion, as is seen by what is said in Romans 8:21: because creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God. Therefore since the conflagration of the world is what disposes toward this renewal, as is clear from what has been said, it can be clearly inferred that this conflagration will precede the judgment as to the purification of the world; but as to a certain one of its acts, namely, enveloping sinners, it will follow the judgment.

Reply Obj. 1: Augustine is not speaking so as to settle the question, but expressing an opinion, which is evident from what follows: indeed we must believe all these things shall come to pass; but how, or in what order, the experience of the things themselves will teach us better than human understanding can now grasp. My opinion, however, is, that they will happen in the order in which I have related them. Therefore it is evident that he said this as an opinion.

Reply Obj. 2: And the second objection should be answered in the same way.

Reply Obj. 3: As was said above in Distinction 13, all men will die and rise again; but those who are still living in the body at the time of the conflagration are the ones said to be found alive.

Reply Obj. 4: That fire will only carry out the sentence of the judge with regard to enveloping the wicked; and in this respect it will follow the judgment.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that in preceding the judgment, the fire of the final conflagration will act as an instrument of divine justice; and again, it will act by the natural power of fire. Therefore, as much as it pertains to its natural power, it will act the same among the good and the bad who are found living, and it will resolve the bodies of both into ashes; but inasmuch as it acts as an instrument of divine justice, it will act differently on different people as to the sense of punishment. For the wicked will be tormented by the action of the fire, but the good in whom nothing is found to be purified will feel no pain from the fire, just as the boys in the fiery furnace also did not feel anything (Daniel 3:50); although their bodies will not be kept intact as the boys’ bodies were preserved; and this will be possible by divine power, that they suffer the disintegration of their bodies without the pain of torment. But the good in whom there is found something to be purified shall feel more or less of the pain of torment from that fire based on the difference in their merits. But as to the action that the fire will have after the judgment, it will act only on the damned, for all the good will have impassible bodies.

Reply Obj. 1: ‘Consumption’ there does not mean annihilation, but dissolution into ashes.

Reply Obj. 2: Although the bodies of the good will be resolved into ashes by the fire, they will not however feel any pain from this, just as the boys in the furnace felt no pain, as was said. And in this regard it is not the same with the good as with the bad.

Reply Obj. 3: Elements existing in human bodies will be purified by the fire even in the bodies of the elect; but this will be done by divine power without the pain of torment.

Reply Obj. 4: That fire will not act only according to the natural power of the element, but also as an instrument of divine justice.

Reply Obj. 5: There are three reason why those who are found alive will be able to be purified in a moment. One is that there will be few things found in them to be purified, since they will have been purified by the terrors and persecutions that had gone before. The second is that those living will also endure punishment willingly. Now punishment accepted willingly in this life purifies much more than punishment inflicted after death, as is seen in the case of martyrs, because if something is found in them that needs to be purified, the scythe of suffering takes it away, as Augustine says, (Speaking of the martyrdom of St. Cyprian; see Augustine, Epistle 108 (PL 33:410), also numbered as Epistle 93 (CSEL 34.2:484).) since the suffering of martyrs is nevertheless brief compared with the suffering that is endured in purgatory. The third reason is that the heat will supply in intensity what it has lost by the reduction of its time.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question, it should be said that the whole purification and renewal of the world will be ordered to the purification and renewal of man, and therefore it is necessary that the purification and renewal of the world correspond to the purification and renewal of the human race. Now there will be a certain purification of the human race when the wicked are separated from the good, which is why it says in Luke 3:17: his winnowing fork is in his hand, to clear his threshing floor,, and to gather the wheat, that is, the elect, into his granary; but the chaff, that is, the condemned, he will burn with unquenchable fire. Therefore the purification of the world will take place such that whatever is base and ugly will be cast into hell with the condemned; but whatever is beautiful and noble will be kept in the heights for the glory of the elect. And the fire of the conflagration will be like this as well, as Basil says (Basil the Great, Homily on Psalm 28, PG 29:298.) commenting on Psalm 29 (28):7: the voice of the Lord flashes forth flames of fire: for as to the burning heat, and with regard to whatever is found to be coarse, it will descend to hell for the punishment of the damned; but whatever is fine and bright there will remain above for the glory of the elect.

Reply Obj. 1: The fire that will purify the elect before the judgment will be the same as the fire of the world’s conflagration, although some may say the contrary. For it is fitting that, since man is a part of the world, man and the world will be purified by the same fire. But there are said to be two fires, both as to their role and in a certain way as to their substance: one that will purify the good and one that will torment the wicked: for the whole substance of the purifying fire will not be cast into hell, as has been said.

Reply Obj. 2: In this fire that person will be repaid because whatever is coarse in him will be separated from him and cast into hell.

Reply Obj. 3: Just as the glory of the elect will be greater after the judgment than before, so too will the punishment of the condemned: and thus as the brightness of higher creation will be heightened to increase the glory of the elect, so too whatever is base in created things shall be cast into hell to increase the misery of the damned. And so it is not unbecoming to the fire prepared from the beginning if another fire is added to it.

Exposition of the Text

“The ones who at least preserved their faith in him in words will at least hear the judge’s words.” (Sententiae IV, 47.3 (272). 2.) These words are not to be taken as spoken words but mental words, as was said above.

And heaven and earth shall perish: “not according to substance but according to form.” (Sent. IV, 47.4 (273). 2 citing Mt 24, 35, with ordinary and interlinear gloss.) Here ‘form’ means the corruptibility of the elements, and other things that have to do with their dishonor.

Through the ministry of the angels, with the aid of God’s power, the evil ones shall be sent into the fiery furnace. (Sent. IV, 47.4 (273). 4.) This is to be understood of the good angels as to the command, but of the bad angels as to execution.