D. 48 - The second coming

After the Master has considered the divine judgment as regards the mode of the judgment and the judge’s ministers, here he determines what pertains to the person of the judge. And it is divided into two parts. In the first part, he shows what form Christ will appear in when he comes to judge. In the second, he determines the circumstances of the judgment: some hold that the Lord will descend into the valley of Josaphat for the judgment. (Sententiae IV, 48.4 (278). 1.)

The first part is divided into two parts. In the first, he shows that Christ will judge in the form of man. In the second, he invokes a likeness, namely, that Christ as man is the cause of the resurrection of bodies: and as it is said that Christ, for the aforementioned cause, will judge according to the form of a servant, so also it is said that he will raise the bodies of the dead according to his humanity. (Sent. IV, 48.3 (277). 1.)

The first part is divided into two parts. In the first, he makes a determination that Christ will judge in the form of man. In the second, that he will judge in the glorious form of man: but since it is established that he will appear in human form, it is asked, etc. (Sent. IV, 48.2 (276). 1.)

Some hold that the Lord will descend into the valley of Josaphat for the judgment. Here he examines the circumstances of the judgment. And concerning this he does two things. First, he considers what will accompany the judge’s coming. Second, what follows from it: but when there will have come a new heaven and a new earth, then, as Isaiah attests, the light of the moon shall be like the light of the sun. (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 3.)

Concerning the first he does two things. First, he determines the place of the coming. Second, the effect of the judge’s coming: as the Lord comes to judgment . . . the sun and the moon are said to be darkened. (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 1.)

Here two questions arise. The first is about the judge himself. Second, the renewal of the world that follows the judgment.

Question 1

Christ as judge

Concerning the first, four questions arise:

first, whether Christ will judge in the form of man;

• second, whether in judgment he will appear in glorious figure;
• third, whether he could appear in the nature of divinity to anyone without joy;
• fourth, on the circumstances of the judge’s coming.
• Article 1

Whether Christ will judge in the form of man

Obj. 1: To the first we proceed thus. (Parallels: ST III, q. 59, a. 2; Super Matt. 25; SCG IV, ch. 96; Quodl. X, q. 1, a. 2; Super Ioan. 5, lec. 4 & 5; Comp. theo. 241; Expos. super Symbol.) It seems that Christ will not judge in the form of a slave. For judgment requires authority in the one judging. But authority over the living and the dead is in Christ as God, for this is how he is Lord and Creator of all. Therefore he will judge in the form of divinity.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, unsurpassable power is required in a judge. Thus: do not seek to become a judge, unless you are able to remove iniquities (Sir 7:6). But unsurpassable power befits Christ as God. Therefore he will judge in the form of divinity.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, it is said: the Father . . . has given all judgment to the Son, that all may honor the Son, even as they honor the Father (Jn 5:22–23). But equal honor is not due to the Father and the Son according to his human nature. Therefore he will not judge according to the form of man.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, it is said: as I looked, thrones were placed, and one that was ancient of days took his seat (Dan 7:9). Now thrones denote judiciary power, while it speaks of God’s antiquity by reason of eternity, as Dionysius says in On the Divine Names. (Pseudo-Dionysius, On the Divine Names, ch. 10, PG 3:935.) Therefore judging befits the Son according as he is eternal and not, therefore, as man.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, Augustine says, as related in the text, that the resurrection of souls occurs through the word of the Son of God. But that final judgment pertains more to the soul than to the flesh. Therefore judging befits Christ more as God than as man.

On the contrary (1), it is said: he has given him authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of man (Jn 5:27).

Furthermore (2), it says in Job 36:17: thy cause hath been judged as that of the wicked. A Gloss adds: by Pilate. Thus, the verse continues: cause and judgment thou shalt recover. The Gloss explains: to judge justly. But Christ was judged by Pilate according to his human nature. Therefore it is according to his human nature that he will judge.

Furthermore (3), judging belongs to the one who establishes the law. But Christ, appearing in human nature, gave us the law of the Gospel. Therefore he will also judge according to this same nature.

I answer that, judgment requires a dominion in judging. Hence: who are you to pass judgment on the servant of another? (Rom 14:4). And thus it belongs to Christ to judge as having dominion over men, whom the final judgment will principally concern. But he is our lord not only by reason of creation, since the Lord is God; it is he that made us, and not we ourselves (Ps 99 [100]:3), but also by reason of redemption, which belongs to him in his human nature. Hence: to this end Christ died and lived again, that he might be Lord both of the dead and of the living (Rom 14:9). Now for the reward of eternal life the goods of creation would not suffice if the benefit of redemption were not added, on account of the impediment that has come upon created nature from the sin of our first parent. Hence since that final judgment is ordained such that some may be admitted to the kingdom, it is fitting that Christ himself in his human nature, by whose benefit of redemption we are admitted to the kingdom, preside over the judgment. And this is what it means when it is said: he is the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead (Acts 10:42). It is also fitting because through the redemption of the human race he has repaired not only men but also universally the whole creation, insofar as the whole creation is improved by man’s reparation, as is found in Col 1:20: through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross. Thus through his Passion Christ merited dominion and judiciary power not only over men but also over all creation: all authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me (Mt 28:18).

Reply Obj. 1: According to his divine nature, Christ has the authority of dominion over all creation by right of creating, but he also has the authority of dominion that he merited through the Passion as a secondary and acquired authority, whereas the first is natural and eternal.

Reply Obj. 2: Even though Christ as man does not have unsurpassable power of himself from the natural power of the human species, he does have unsurpassable power even in his human nature from the gift of divinity, in accord with which God has put all things in subjection under his feet, as is said in 1 Cor 15:27. And thus he will indeed judge in his human nature, though from the power of divinity.

Reply Obj. 3: Christ would not have sufficed for the redemption of the human race if he had been mere man. And thus from the fact that he was able to redeem the human race in his human nature and thereby has obtained judiciary power it is manifestly shown that he is himself God and thus equally to be honored with the Father, not insofar as he is man but insofar as he is God.

Reply Obj. 4: In that vision of Daniel the whole order of judiciary power is manifestly expressed. For judging power is in God himself as in its primary origin, and more specifically in the Father, who is the source of the whole divinity. And thus it first begins with the ancient of days sat. But judiciary power is passed from the Father to the Son not only from eternity in his divine nature but also in time in his human nature, in which he merited. And thus in the vision is added: behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him (Dan 7:13).

Reply Obj. 5: Augustine is speaking by way of a kind of appropriation, that is, reducing the effects that Christ accomplished in his human nature to causes in some way like them. And because in our soul we are after the image and likeness of God and in our flesh we are of the same species as the man Christ, he attributes what Christ accomplished in our souls to divinity and what he accomplishes or will accomplish in our flesh he attributes to his flesh, although his flesh, as an organ of his divinity, also has an effect in our souls, as Damascene says, (John Damascene, On the Orthodox Faith, Bk. 3, ch. 15, PG 94:1059.) according to the passage: how much more shall the blood of Christ . . . purify our conscience from dead works (Heb 9:14). And in this way, too, the Word made flesh is the cause of the resurrection of souls. Hence in his humanity he is also fittingly the judge not only of corporeal goods but also of spiritual ones.

Article 2

Whether in judgment he will appear in glorious figure

Obj. 1: To the second we proceed thus. (Parallel: Comp. theo. 241.) It seems that at the judgment Christ will not appear in the glorious form of his humanity: they shall look on him whom they have pierced (Jn 19:37). (Alluding to Zechariah 12:10.) A Gloss adds: for he is to come in the flesh in which he was crucified. But he was crucified in a weak form. Therefore he will appear in the form of weakness, not the glorious form.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, it is said: then will appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven (Mt 24:30), that is the sign of the cross. And Chrysostom says (John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew, nn. 76–77, PG 58:698.) that at the judgment Christ will come showing not only the marks of his wounds but also his most reproachful death itself. Therefore it seems that he will not appear in glorious form.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, at the judgment God will appear in a form that can be seen by all. But Christ will not be able to be seen by all, both good and wicked, in the glorious form of his humanity. For a non-glorified eye does not seem to be proportioned to seeing the clarity of the glorious body. Therefore he will not appear in glorious form.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, what is promised to the just as a reward is not granted to the unjust. But seeing the glory of Christ’s humanity is promised to the just as a reward: he will go in and out, and shall find pasture (Jn 10:9), that is, refreshment both in divinity and in humanity, as Augustine explains. (For a long while Augustine was cited as the author of the book De Spiritu et Anima. Following a widespread belief, the Vives edition prints “Alcherus” (Alcher of Clairvaux) instead of Augustine; however, it is not known who the actual author was. The reference here is to ch. 9 of the work.) And: your eyes will see the king in his beauty (Is 33:17). Therefore at the judgment he will not appear to all in glorious form.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, Christ will judge in the form in which he was judged. Hence on the passage the Son gives life to whom he will (Jn 5:21), a Gloss (Augustine, In Iohannis euangelium tractatus (CCSL 36), Tract. 21.) says: he will judge justly in the form in which he was unjustly judged so as to be able to be seen by the impious. But he was judged in the form of infirmity. Therefore he will also appear in the same form at the judgment.

On the contrary (1), it is said: they will see the Son of man coming in a cloud with power and great majesty (Lk 21:27). But majesty and power pertain to glory. Therefore he will appear in glorious form.

Furthermore (2), he who judges ought to have eminence over those who are judged. But the elect who will be judged by Christ will have glorious bodies. Therefore much more will the judge appear in glorious form.

Furthermore (3), as being judged belongs to infirmity, judging belongs to authority and glory. But at his first coming, in which Christ came to be judged, he appeared in the form of infirmity. Therefore at the second coming, in which he will come to judge, he will appear in glorious form.

I answer that, Christ is called the mediator between God and men inasmuch as he satisfies and intercedes before the Father for men and also communicates to men what belongs to the Father, according to what is said: the glory which thou hast given me I have given to them (Jn 17:22). Now in both regards it befits him to share in each of these extremes. For inasmuch as he has a share with men he represents men before the Father, while inasmuch as he has a share with the Father he transmits the Father’s gifts to men. Therefore because at his first coming he came to satisfy for us before the Father, he appeared in the form of our infirmity, but because at the second coming he will come to carry out the Father’s justice on men, he will have to show the glory that is in him from his communion with the Father. And thus he will appear in glorious form.

Reply Obj. 1: He will appear in the same flesh, but not as existing in the same way.

Reply Obj. 2: The sign of the cross will appear at the judgment not as an indication of infirmity existing at that time but rather of past infirmity, so that the condemnation of those who have neglected such great mercy may thereby appear more just, especially those who unjustly persecuted Christ. But the marks that will appear in his body will not pertain to any infirmity but will be indications of the greatest strength by which Christ triumphed over his enemies through the infirmity of the Passion. He will also show his most reproachful death, though not displaying it sensibly to the eyes as if suffering at that time. Rather, from what will appear, namely the indications of his past Passion, people will be led to recognize his past death.

Reply Obj. 3: The glorious body has in its power to show or not to show itself to a non-glorious eye, as is clear from what was said above (Distinction 44, Question 2, Article 4). And thus Christ will be able to be seen by men in glorious form.

Reply Obj. 4: Just as a friend’s glory is delightful, so also the glory and power of one who is hated is most saddening. And thus just as the vision of the glory of Christ’s humanity will be a reward to the just, so also it will be a torture to Christ’s enemies. Hence: let the envious people see, and be confounded: and let fire, namely envies, devour thy enemies (Is 26:11).

Reply Obj. 5: ‘Form’ there is taken as meaning the human nature in which he was judged and also will judge, not as meaning the quality of the nature, which will not be the same in him judging as it was in him judged, namely, it will not be infirm.

Article 3

Whether he could appear in the nature of divinity to anyone without joy

Obj. 1: To the third we proceed thus. (Parallel: Comp. theo. 165.) It seems that the divinity can be seen by the wicked without joy. For it is obvious that the impious will most manifestly know that Christ is God. Therefore they will see his divinity, and yet they will not rejoice at the vision of Christ. Therefore the divinity can be seen without joy.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, the perverse will of the impious is not more adverse to Christ’s humanity than to his divinity. But the fact that they will see the glory of his humanity will be painful for them, as was said. Therefore all the more, they would be saddened rather than rejoice if they saw his divinity.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, what is in the affections does not necessarily follow after what is in the intellect. Hence Augustine says: the intellect precedes and a slow affection follows or none at all. (Augustine, Explanations of the Psalms (CCSL 40), Sermon 8 on Ps 118 (v. 20).) But vision pertains to the intellect, while joy pertains to the affections. Therefore vision of the divinity without joy will be possible.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, everything received in another is received in the mode of the receiver, not in the mode of the thing received. But everything that is seen is in a certain way received in the one seeing. Therefore although the divinity is most delightful in itself, when seen by those who are mired in sadness it will give not delight but rather sadness.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, the intellect is to the intelligible as the senses are to the sensible. But in the senses bread is a punishment to an unhealthy palate but sweet to a healthy one, as Augustine says. (Augustine, Confessions (CCSL 27), Bk. 7, ch. 16.) And the case is similar with the other senses. Therefore since the damned have an indisposed intellect, it seems that the vision of uncreated light would bring them punishment more than joy.

On the contrary (1), it is said: this is eternal life: that they may know thee, the only true God (Jn 17:3). From this it is clear that the essence of beatitude consists in the vision of God. But joy pertains to the notion of beatitude. Therefore the divinity cannot be seen without joy.

Furthermore (2), the very essence of the divinity is the essence of truth. But to see what is true is delightful to everyone. Hence, too, men by nature desire to know, as it says at the beginning of the Metaphysics. (Aristotle, Metaphysics, Bk. 1, ch. 1, 980a21.) Therefore the divinity cannot be seen without joy.

Furthermore (3), if a given vision is not always delightful it befits it at some time to be saddening. But intellective vision is never saddening, since there is no sadness opposed to the delight found in understanding, as the Philosopher says. (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. 7, ch. 12, 1152b36.) Since, then, the divinity can only be seen through the intellect, it seems that the divinity cannot be seen without joy.

I answer that, in any desirable or delightful object two things can be considered: what is desired or delightful, and what is the reason for desirability or delightfulness in it. Now just as, according to Boethius in On the Hebdomads, (Boethius, Quomodo substantiae in eo, quod sint, bonae sint (‘De hebdomadibus’), ed. Stewart et al. (Loeb ed.), n. 4, p. 40.) anything that exists can have something besides what it itself is, but being itself has nothing besides itself mixed with it, so also whatever is desirable or delightful can have something mixed with it whereby it is not delightful or desirable. But that which is the reason for delightfulness has nothing and can have nothing mixed with it on account of which it would not be delightful or desirable. Things, then, which are delightful by participation in goodness, which is the reason for desirability and delightfulness, can be apprehended as not giving delight, but in the case of that which is goodness essentially it is impossible for its essence when apprehended not to give delight. Hence since God is essentially goodness itself, the divinity cannot be seen without joy.

Reply Obj. 1: The impious will manifestly know that Christ is God, not by seeing his divinity but through most manifest signs of his divinity.

Reply Obj. 2: No one can hate the divinity considered in itself, just as no one can hate goodness itself. But some are said to hate the divinity’s effects, namely, inasmuch as God does or commands what is contrary to their will. And thus the vision of the divinity is not able not to be delightful to anyone.

Reply Obj. 3: Augustine’s statement should be understood as referring to when what is apprehended by the intellect preceding is good by participation not essentially, as are all created things. Hence there can be in them something whereby the affections are not moved. Likewise, too, in the wayfaring state God is known through effects and the intellect does not attain to the very essence of his goodness. Hence it is not necessary for affection to follow the intellect as it would follow if it saw his essence, which is goodness itself.

Reply Obj. 4: Sadness does not name a disposition but rather a passion. But every passion is taken away by the coming of a stronger contrary cause and does not take it away. And thus the sadness of the damned would be taken away if they saw God in his essence.

Reply Obj. 5: The natural proportion of an organ to the object that naturally delights it is taken away by the organ’s indisposition. And because of this delight is impeded. But the indisposition in the damned does not take away the natural proportion whereby they are ordered to the divine goodness, since the image always remains in them. And thus the case is not similar.

Article 4

On the circumstances of the judge’s coming

Quaestiuncula 1

Obj. 1: To the fourth we proceed thus. (Parallel: In IV Sent. d. 47, q. 1, a. 1, qa. 3, ad 2.) It seems that certain signs will not precede the Lord’s coming for judgment. For: when people say, “there is peace and security,” then sudden destruction will come upon them (1 Thess 5:3). But there would not be peace and security if men were terrified by the preceding signs. Therefore signs will not precede that coming.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, signs are ordered to manifestation. But his coming ought to be in secret. Hence: the day of the Lord will come like a thief in the night (1 Thess 5:2). Therefore signs should not precede it.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the time of the first coming was foreknown by the prophets, which is not the case for the second coming, as was said above. But no signs of this sort preceded Christ’s first coming. Therefore neither will they precede his second.

On the contrary (1), it is said: there will be signs in sun and moon and stars (Lk 21:25).

Furthermore (2), Jerome posits fifteen signs preceding the judgment, (These fifteen signs were well known in the Middle Ages and were frequently depicted in illuminated manuscripts. Jacobus de Voragine lists them in his account of the Advents of the Lord: see The Golden Legend, trans. William G. Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 1:8.) saying: on the first day all the seas will be raised fifteen cubits above the mountains. On the second, all the surfaces of the sea will be thrust down to the depth so that they can hardly be seen. On the third, they will be returned to their original state. On the fourth, all sea monsters and other creatures that move in the waters will be gathered together and raised above the sea in a manner of contention, bellowing to one another. On the fifth, all the birds of heaven will be gathered together on the fields, crying to one another, neither tasting anything nor drinking. On the sixth, fiery rivers will rise from the sun’s setting against the face of the firmament, running together all the way to the sun’s rising. On the seventh, all the planets and stars will scatter strands of fire from themselves, such as comets. On the eighth, there will be a great earthquake and all the animals will be laid low. On the ninth, all stones great and small will be divided into four parts, each colliding with another. On the tenth, all plants will flow with bloody frost. On the eleventh, all mountains, hills, and buildings will be reduced to dust. On the twelfth, all the animals will come to the fields from the forests and mountains, roaring and tasting nothing. On the thirteenth, all the tombs from the sun’s rising to its setting will lie open for the corpses to rise. On the fourteenth, all men will withdraw from their dwellings, neither understanding nor speaking but running about. On the fifteenth, all will die and rise with the dead who died long before.

Quaestiuncula 2

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that at the time of the judgment, the sun and moon will be darkened in reality. For, as Rabanus comments on Matthew (24:29), nothing prevents our understanding that at that time the sun and moon with the rest of the stars will truly be deprived of their light, as is obvious happened to the sun at the time of the Lord’s Passion.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, the light of the heavenly bodies is ordered to the generation of lower bodies. For they have an influence on lower bodies by it, not only by motion, as Averroes says in On the Substance of the Heavenly Sphere. (Averroes, On the Substance of the Heavenly Sphere, ch. 2.) But at that time generation will cease. Therefore neither will light remain in the heavenly bodies.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, as it seems to some, lower bodies will be purified from the qualities by which they act. But a heavenly body acts not only through motion but also through light, as has been said. Therefore just as the motion of heaven will cease, so also will the light of the heavenly bodies.

On the contrary (1), according to astronomers, the sun and moon cannot simultaneously undergo an eclipse. But this darkening of the sun and moon is said to be simultaneous, namely, when the Lord comes for judgment. Therefore the darkening is a darkening in reality after the manner of a natural eclipse.

Furthermore (2), it is incongruous for the same thing to be the cause of a thing’s deficiency and its increase. But when the Lord comes we are promised that the light of the luminaries will increase: the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun will be sevenfold (Is 30:26). Therefore it is not fitting that when the Lord comes the light of these bodies should cease.

Quaestiuncula 3

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that the virtues of heaven will not be moved when the Lord comes. (Parallels: Super Matt. 24; Resp. de Art. 36, a. 4; Resp. de Art. 42, a. 17.) For only the blessed angels can be called the virtues of heaven. But immutability pertains to the notion of beatitude. Therefore they will not be able to be moved.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, ignorance is the cause of wonderment, as is clear at the beginning of the Metaphysics. (Aristotle, Metaphysics, Bk. 1, ch. 2, 982b12–28.) But just as fear is far from the angels, so also is ignorance. For, as Gregory says: (Gregory the Great, Dialogues (SC 265), Bk. 4, ch. 33.) what is there that those who see the one who sees all do not see? Therefore they will not be able to be moved by wonderment, as it says in the text.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, all the angels will stand before the divine judgment: and all the angels stood round about the throne (Rev 7:11). But ‘virtues’ names one specific order among the angels. Therefore it should not have been said specifically that they will be moved rather than the other angels.

On the contrary (1), it is said: the pillars of heaven tremble at his coming (Job 26:11). (In place of pavent adventum eius, the Vulgate has pavent ad nutum eius (“And tremble at his beck”).) But the pillars of heaven can only be understood as the virtues of heaven. Therefore the virtues will be greatly moved.

Furthermore (2), it is said: stars shall fall from heaven and the virtues of heaven shall be moved (Mt 24:29).

Quaestiuncula 4

Obj. 1: Moreover, it seems that the judgment will not take place in the valley of Jehoshaphat or the surrounding area. (Parallels: Quodl. X, q. 1, a. 2; Comp. theo. 244.) For it is at least necessary for all those to be judged to stand on the earth or only for those to be lifted in the clouds who will have the task of judging. But the whole of the Promised Land could not hold the multitude of those to be judged. Therefore it cannot be the case that the judgment will be around this valley.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, as was said above, judgment has been given to Christ in his humanity that he who was unjustly judged may judge justly. But he was unjustly judged in Pilate’s praetorium and bore the sentence of unjust judgment in Golgotha. Therefore these places should instead be designated for the judgment.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, clouds come from the resolution of vapors. But at that time there will be no evaporation or resolution. Therefore it cannot be the case that the just will be taken up in the clouds to meet Christ in the air. And so it will be necessary for both the good and the wicked to be on the earth. And thus a place much larger will be required than this valley.

On the contrary (1), it is said: I will gather all the nations and bring them down to the valley of Jehoshaphat, and I will enter into judgment with them there (Joel 3:2).

Furthermore (2), it is said: he who was taken up from you into heaven will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven (Acts 1:11). But he ascended from the Mount of Olives, which rises above the valley of Jehoshaphat. Therefore he will also come to judge in this area.

Response to Quaestiuncula 1

I answer that, as was said above, Christ coming to judge will appear in glorious form because of the authority that a judge is due. Now it pertains to the dignity of judiciary power to have certain signs inducing reverence and subjection. And thus many signs will precede the arrival of Christ when he comes for judgment so that the hearts of men may be led to subjection to the coming judge and, admonished by such signs, prepared for judgment. But as to what these signs are, this cannot be easily known. For, as Augustine says in a letter to Hesychius on the end of the world, the signs that we read of in the Gospels pertain not only to Christ’s coming for judgment but also to the time of the destruction of Jerusalem and that coming of Christ by which Christ continuously visits his Church. So that perhaps if these signs are diligently considered we find that none of them pertains to the future coming, as he says. For the signs touched on in the Gospels, such as strife, terrors, and so forth, have existed from the beginning of the human race, unless perhaps it is said that they will grow much worse at that time. But as to what measure of the circumstances would indicate the second coming was near, that is uncertain. The signs that Jerome gives, however, he does not assert but says that he found them written in the annals of the Jews, which also contain very little plausibility.

Reply Obj. 1: According to Augustine in the letter to Hesychius mentioned above, around the end of the world there will be a universal persecution of the wicked against the good. This is how at the same time some, namely, the good, will fear and some, namely, the wicked, will feel secure. Now when they said peace and security, this is to be referred to the wicked, who will give too little consideration to the signs of the future judgment, whereas when it is said: men fainting for fear (Lk 21:26), this pertains to the good. Or we may say that all these signs that will happen around the judgment are reckoned as falling within the time of judgment such that the day of judgment contains all of them. Hence even though people will be terrified by the signs appearing around the day of judgment, before these signs begin to appear the impious will believe themselves to be in peace and security, not immediately seeing the world consummated after the death of the Antichrist, as they had thought.

Reply Obj. 2: The day of the Lord is said to come like a thief because its definite time is unknown, being unable to be known through the signs, although all the most manifest signs that will immediately precede the judgment can also be included under the day of judgment, as has been said.

Reply Obj. 3: At his first coming Christ came hidden, though the determinate time was previously foreknown by the prophets. And thus at the first coming it was not necessary for signs to appear such as will appear at the second coming, in which he will come manifest, though the determinate time is hidden.

Response to Quaestiuncula 2

To the second question, it should be said that if we are speaking of the sun and moon as regards the very moment of Christ’s coming, then it is not credible that they would be darkened by the privation of their light. For the whole world will be renewed when Christ comes and the saints arise, as has been said. If, however, we are speaking of them with reference to a time shortly before the judgment, then it will be possible for the sun, the moon, and the other luminaries of heaven to be darkened by the privation of their light, either at different times or at the same time, with divine power doing this to terrify men.

Reply Obj. 1: Rabanus is speaking with regard to the time preceding the judgment.

Reply Obj. 2: Light is in the heavenly bodies not only to cause generation in these lower bodies but also for their perfection and beauty. And so when generation ceases the light of the heavenly bodies need not cease but will rather be increased.

Reply Obj. 3: As has been said, it does not seem probable that the elemental qualities would be removed from the elements, although some have posited this. Yet if they were removed, it is not the same with them as with light by the fact that the elemental qualities possess contrareity to one another and so they act by corrupting. Light, however, is the principle of action not by way of contrareity but by way of a principle regulating contraries and reducing them to harmony. Nor is the case similar with the motion of the heavenly bodies. For motion is the act of the imperfect. Therefore it should also be taken away when imperfection will be taken away, which cannot be said of light.

Response to Quaestiuncula 3

To the third question it should be said that we speak of virtues among the angels in two ways, as is clear from Dionysius. (Pseudo-Dionysius, Celestial Hierarchy, ch. 11 (PG 3:283).) For sometimes the name ‘virtues’ is appropriated to a single order, which according to Dionysius is the middle order of the middle hierarchy and according to Gregory is the highest of the lowest hierarchy. In the other way, ‘virtues’ is taken generally for all the heavenly spirits. And it can be taken in both ways in the case in question. For in the text it is explained as being taken in the second way, namely for all the angels, and then they are said to be moved on account of wonder at the newness that will be in the world, as it says in the text. ‘Virtues’ can also be explained as being the proper name of an order, and then this order is said to be moved more than the others by reason of the effect. For, according to Gregory, we attribute to this order the working of miracles, which will occur most of all around that time. Or else because this order, since it pertains to the middle hierarchy according to Dionysius, does not have a limited power. Hence its ministry must concern universal causes. This is why the proper task of the virtues seems to be moving the heavenly bodies, which are the cause of what goes on in lower nature. And this, too, is reflected in their name, since they are called the ‘virtues of heaven.’ Therefore they will be moved at that time because they will cease from their effect, no longer moving the heavenly bodies, just as the angels who are deputed for the guardianship of men will no longer devote themselves to the task of guardianship.

Reply Obj. 1: This change does not vary something pertaining to their state but refers either to their effects, which can be changed without their being changed, or to a new consideration of things that they were previously unable to see in their concrete species. But beatitude does not take away this interchange of thoughts from them. Hence Augustine says (Augustine, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (CSEL 28.1), Bk. 8, par. 22.) that God moves the spiritual creature through time.

Reply Obj. 2: Wonderment is usually about what exceeds our knowledge or capacity. And in this regard the virtues of heaven will wonder at the divine power doing other things, inasmuch as they fall short of imitating or comprehending it, after the manner whereby Agnes said: sun and moon wonder at its beauty. (From the suppositious Letter to Holy Virgins of Ambrose, n. 3.) And in this way we do not posit ignorance in the angels but rather exclude their comprehension of God.

Reply Obj. 3: The reply to the third objection is clear from what has been said.

Response to Quaestiuncula 4

To the fourth question, it should be said that not much can be known with certitude about how that judgment will take place and how men will gather together for judgment, though it can be gathered with some probability from the Scriptures that he will descend around the place of the Mount of Olives, as he also ascended from that place, to show that the one who descends and the one who ascended are the same.

Reply Obj. 1: A great multitude can be held in a small space. But it suffices to posit any amount of space around that place to contain the multitude of those to be judged as long as they can see Christ from that space. Being above in the air and shining with greatest clarity, he will be able to be seen from far away.

Reply Obj. 2: Even though Christ merited judiciary power through being unjustly judged, he will not judge in the form of weakness, in which he was unjustly judged, but in the glorious form in which he ascended to the Father. And so the place of the Ascension is more appropriate for judgment than the place where he was condemned.

Reply Obj. 3: As some say, what are called ‘clouds’ here are certain densities of the light shining from the bodies of the saints, not evaporations from earth and water. Or it may be said that these clouds will be generated by divine power to show the conformity between Christ’s coming for judgment and his Ascension, so that he who ascended on a cloud should come to judge. Because they are refreshing, clouds also indicate the mercy of the one who judges.

Question 2

The renewal of the world

Next the renewal of the world is inquired about; and here five questions arise:

first, whether there is going to be a renewal of the world;

• second, whether the motion of the heavenly bodies will cease when the world is renewed;
• third, whether the heavenly bodies will shine with greater clarity;
• fourth, whether certain elements will be adorned with the glory of clarity;
• fifth, whether brute animals, plants, and mineral bodies will remain.
• Article 1

Whether there is going to be a renewal of the world

Obj. 1: To the first we proceed thus. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 47, q. 2, a. 1, qa. 1; SCG IV, ch. 97; Comp. theo. 169.) It seems that the world will never be renewed. For nothing will be that has not at some time already been according to species: what has been is what will be (Eccl 1:9). But the world has never had a disposition other than that which it now has as regards essential parts, genera, and species. Therefore it will never be renewed.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, renewal is a kind of alteration. But it is impossible for the universe to be altered because everything altered is traceable to something that alters and is not altered yet that is moved in place. But we cannot posit such a thing outside the universe. Therefore it cannot be the case that the world will be renewed.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, it is said (Gen 2:2) that God rested on the seventh day from all the work that he had undertaken, and the saints explain that he rested from creating new creatures. But in the first creation no other manner was imposed on things than that which they now hold to by natural order. Therefore they will never possess a different mode.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, the arrangement of things that now exists is natural to things. If, then, they are transmuted to a different arrangement, this arrangement will be unnatural to them. But that which is unnatural and accidental cannot be perpetual, as is clear from On the Heavens 1. (Aristotle, On the Heavens, Bk. 1, ch. 2, 269b6–10.) Therefore the new arrangement will also be removed from things at some time. And thus we will have to posit a kind of circularity in the world, such as Empedocles and Origen posited, such that after this world there is yet another world and after that one yet another.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, the newness of glory is given to the rational creature as a reward. But where there is no merit, there cannot be a reward. Since, then, insensible creatures have not merited anything, it seems that they will not be renewed.

On the contrary (1), it is related: behold, I create new heavens, and a new earth: and the former things shall not be remembered (Is 65:17). And: I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away (Rev 21:1).

Furthermore (2), a dwelling should be appropriate to the one who dwells there. But the world was made to be man’s dwelling place. But man will be renewed. Therefore the world, too, will be renewed.

Furthermore (3), every creature loves its like (Sir 13:15). From this it is clear that likeness is the reason for love. But man has a likeness to the universe, which is why he is also called a microcosm. Therefore man naturally loves the universe. Therefore he also desires its good. And thus, to satisfy man’s desire, the universe should also be made better.

I answer that, all corporeal things are believed to have been made for man’s sake; this is why they are all said to be subject to him. Now they serve him in two ways: in one way, for the maintenance of physical life; in the other for advancing in knowledge of God, inasmuch as through the things that have been made man sees the invisible things of God, as is said in Rom 1:20. Therefore glorified man will in no way need the first service of creation, since his body will be altogether incorruptible, divine power accomplishing this through the soul, which it glorifies directly. Man will also not need the second service as regards intellective knowledge, since the saints will see God with such knowledge directly in his essence. But the eye of the flesh will not be able to attain this vision of the essence. And thus, that an appropriate solace may be afforded it in this matter of seeing the divinity, it will perceive the divinity in its corporeal effects, in which signs of the divine majesty will manifestly appear, especially in the flesh of Christ, next in the bodies of the blessed, and so forth in all other creatures. And thus it will be necessary for even other physical things to receive a greater influence from the divine goodness, not one that varies their species but one that adds the perfection of a certain glory. And this will be the world’s renewal. And so the world will be renewed and man will be glorified together.

Reply Obj. 1: Solomon is speaking in that place of the course of natural things, as is clear from what he adds: nothing new under the sun. For since the sun is moved in a circle, what lies under the sun’s power must have some circularity. This consists in the return of what previously existed as the same specifically and different numerically, as it says at the end of On Generation. (See Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption, Bk. 2, ch. 11, 338b13–20.) But what pertains to the state of glory is not subject to the sun.

Reply Obj. 2: This argument proceeds on the basis of natural alteration, which has a natural agent that acts from a necessity of nature. For this kind of agent cannot introduce a varying arrangement unless it itself exists in a different way. But what happens by divine power proceeds from freedom of will. This is how without any change of God’s will there can exist from him in the universe now this arrangement and now that. And in this way renewal is not reduced to a moved principle but to an unmovable principle, namely God.

Reply Obj. 3: God is said to have ceased from creating new creatures on the seventh day in that nothing has later been made that did not previously precede in some likeness in genus or species, or at least in seedlike principle or even as in obediential potency. Therefore I say that the world’s future renewal did pre-exist in the works of the six days in a kind of remote likeness, namely, in the glory or grace of the angels. It also preceded in obediential potency, which was then implanted in creation for the reception of such a renewal by God as agent.

Reply Obj. 4: The arrangement of renewal will neither be natural nor contrary to nature but will be above nature, just as grace and glory are above the soul’s nature. And it will be from a perpetual agent, who will also preserve it perpetually.

Reply Obj. 5: Even though insensible corporeal things have not merited that glory properly speaking, man has merited the conferral of that glory on the whole universe, inasmuch as it yields the increase of man’s glory, as a man merits being clothed with more ornate garments, though the garment itself nowise merits the adornment.

Article 2

Whether the motion of the heavenly bodies will cease when the world is renewed

Obj. 1: To the second we proceed thus. (Parallels: In IV Sent. d. 47, q. 2, a. 2, qa. 1; In IV Sent. d. 43, a. 3, qa. 1; Super Heb. 1, lec. 5; SCG IV, ch. 97; De potentia, q. 5, a. 5; Super Ioan. 6, lec. 4; Comp. theo. 171.) It seems that the motion of the heavenly bodies will not cease at the renewal of the world. For it is said: while the earth remains, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease (Gen 8:22). But night and day and winter and summer come about through the motion of the sun. Therefore the sun’s motion will never cease.

Obj. 2: Furthermore: thus says the Lord, who gives the sun for light by day and the fixed order of the moon and the stars for light by night, who stirs up the sea so that its waves roar . . . “if this fixed order departs from before me,” says the Lord, “then shall the descendants of Israel cease from being a nation before me for all days” (Jer 31:35–36). But the seed of Israel will never fail but will remain forever. Therefore the laws of day and night as well as the waves of the sea, which are caused by the motion of heaven, will exist forever. Therefore the motion of heaven will never cease.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the substance of the heavenly bodies will always exist. But it is vain to posit something if we do not posit what it was made for the sake of. Now the heavenly bodies were made to separate the day and night and to exist for signs, seasons, days, and years (Gen 1:14), which they can only accomplish through motion. Therefore their motion will always remain, since otherwise these bodies would remain in vain.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, at the world’s renewal the whole world will be made better. Therefore no physical thing remaining will be deprived of what pertains to its perfection. But motion pertains to the perfection of a heavenly body. For, as it says in On the Heavens 1, (See Aristotle, On the Heavens, Bk. 1, ch. 9, 279a12–279b3; Bk. 2, ch. 3, 286a3–286b8.) these bodies participate in the divine goodness through motion. Therefore the motion of heaven will not cease.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, the sun illuminates different parts of the world in succession as it moves in a circle. If, then, heaven’s circular motion will cease, it follows that there will be perpetual darkness on some of the earth’s surface, which does not befit this renewal.

Obj. 6: Furthermore, if the motion of heaven ceases, this is only to the extent that motion entails some imperfection in heaven, such as that of weariness or effort. This cannot be the case, since this motion is natural and the heavenly bodies are impassible. Hence they do not grow weary in their motion, as it says in On the Heavens 2. (Aristotle, On the Heavens, Bk. 2, ch. 3.) Therefore the motion of heaven will never cease.

Obj. 7: Furthermore, a potency that is not brought into act is in vain. But in whatever location a heavenly body is placed, it is in potency to another location. Therefore if it were not brought to act this potency would remain in vain and would always be imperfect. But it can only be brought into act through local motion. Therefore it will always be moved.

Obj. 8: Furthermore, when something is related indifferently to more than one thing, either they are both attributed to it or neither is. But the sun is related indifferently to being in the east or in the west. Otherwise its motion would not be wholly uniform, since it would be moved more quickly to the place where it would more naturally be. Therefore either neither location is attributed to the sun or both are. But neither both nor neither can be attributed to it except in succession through motion. For it is necessary, if it rests, that it rest in some location. Therefore the body of the sun will be moved forever. And for the same reason so will all the other heavenly bodies.

Obj. 9: Furthermore, the motion of heaven is the cause of time. If, then, the motion of heaven comes to an end, time must come to an end. If time came to an end, it would have to come to an end in an instant. Now the definition of an instant in the Physics 8, (Aristotle, Physics, Bk. 8, ch. 1, 251b20–23.) is that it is the beginning of the future and the end of the past. And in this way after the last instant of time there would be time, which is impossible. Therefore the motion of heaven will never cease.

Obj. 10: Furthermore, glory does not take away nature. But the motion of the heavens is natural to them. Therefore it is not taken away from them by glory.

On the contrary (1), it is said (Rev 10:6) that the angel who appeared swore by the one who lives forever that time will be no longer, that is, after the seventh angel blows the trumpet, at which the dead will rise, as it is said (1 Cor 15:52). But if there is no time, there is no motion in heaven. Therefore the motion of heaven will cease.

Furthermore (2), it is said: your sun shall no more go down, nor your moon be diminished (Is 60:20). But the sun’s going down and the decrease of the moon are caused by the motion of heaven. Therefore the motion of heaven will at some time cease.

Furthermore (3), as proved in On Generation 2, (See Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption, Bk. 2, ch. 10.) the motion of heaven is for the sake of continuous generation in these lower bodies. But generation will cease when the number of the elect is fulfilled. Therefore the motion of heaven will cease.

Furthermore (4), all motion is for the sake of some end, as it says in the Metaphysics 2. (Aristotle, Metaphysics, Bk. 2, ch. 2, 994a6–10.) But all motion that is for the sake of an end will rest when the end is possessed. Therefore either the motion of heaven will never obtain its end, and in this case it would be in vain, or it will eventually cease.

Furthermore (5), rest is more noble than motion. For according as things are immovable they are likened to God, in whom there is utmost immovability. But the motion of lower bodies naturally terminates in rest. Therefore since heavenly bodies are much nobler, their motion will naturally terminate in rest.

I answer that, concerning this question there are three positions.

The first is that of philosophers who say that the motion of heaven will always last. But this is not consonant with our faith, which asserts that a certain number of the elect has been predefined by God. And so the generating of men must not continue forever. And for the same reason neither will the other things that are ordered to human generation, such as the motion of heaven and elemental variations.

Others, however, say that the motion of heaven will naturally cease. But this, too, is false. For every corporeal thing that naturally rests and is naturally moved has a place in which it naturally rests, to which it is naturally moved and from which it only withdraws through violence. But no place can be assigned to a heavenly body, since approach to the point where it rises is not more natural to the sun than withdrawal from it. Hence either its motion would not be wholly natural or its motion does not naturally terminate in rest.

Hence, in accord with others, we should say that the motion of heaven will cease at the world’s renewal, not from any natural cause but by the action of the divine will. For this corporeal thing as well as others were made for the service of man in two ways, as was said before. Now man after the state of glory will not need the second of these services, namely, insofar as corporeal things serve him for the maintenance of corporeal life. This is the way in which a heavenly body serves him through motion, inasmuch as through the motion of heaven the human race is multiplied, plants and other animals that are necessary for the use of men are generated, and the air is made more temperate, preserving health. This is why when man is glorified the motion of heaven will cease.

Reply Obj. 1: These words are understood of the earth according to this state, in which it can be the principle of the generation and corruption of plants, as is clear from what is said in that passage: while the earth remains, seedtime and harvest (Gen 8:22). And we should concede simply that for as long as the earth will be fit for seedtimes and harvests the motion of heaven will not cease.

Reply Obj. 2: Likewise, the Lord is speaking in that passage of the duration of the seed of Israel according to its present state. This is clear from the fact that he says: then shall the descendants of Israel cease from being a nation before me for all days (Jer 31:36). For there will not be an interchange of days after this state. And thus also the laws he had mentioned will not exist after this state.

Reply Obj. 3: The end assigned there to the heavenly bodies is the proximate end because it is more properly their act. But this act is further ordered to another end, namely service to man, as is clear from what we have in Deuteronomy 4:19: beware lest you lift up your eyes to heaven, and when you see the sun and the moon and the stars, all the host of heaven, you be drawn away and worship them and serve them, things which the Lord your God has allotted to all the peoples under the whole heaven. And thus judgment ought to be taken of heavenly bodies according to their service to men rather than the end assigned in general. But heavenly bodies yield a service to glorified man in another way, as said before, and thus it does not follow that they remain in vain.

Reply Obj. 4: The motion of heaven only pertains to the perfection of a heavenly body inasmuch as through this motion it is the cause of generation in these lower bodies. And in this regard this motion also makes the heavenly body participate in the divine goodness through a kind of likeness of causality. But the motion does not pertain to the perfection of the substance of heaven, which will remain. And thus it does not follow that when the motion ceases something pertaining to heaven’s perfection will be taken away, insofar as it will remain.

Reply Obj. 5: All the bodies of the elect, as will be said below, will have in themselves a kind of clarity of glory. For this reason, although some of the earth’s surface will not be illuminated by the sun, darkness will in no way remain there.

Reply Obj. 6: On the passage: the whole creation has been groaning in travail (Rom 8:22), a Gloss of Ambrose (See Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:497.) says expressly that all the elements will carry out their tasks with effort, as the sun and the moon fill their designated spaces only with an effort. Now this labor is for our sake, so that when we are taken up they will rest. But this effort, as I believe, does not signify a fatigue or passivity occurring in these bodies from motion, since this motion is natural and possessing no violence connected with it, as is proved in On the Heavens 1. (Aristotle, On the Heavens, Bk. 1, ch. 2.) Rather, effort is understood in that passage as falling short of that to which something tends. Therefore because this motion is ordered by divine providence to the completion of the number of the elect, while that is incomplete it does not yet obtain what it is ordered to. And thus by way of likeness it is said to put forth effort, like a man who does not have what he intends. And here also the falling-short will be taken away from heaven when the number of the elect is fulfilled. Or it may also refer to the desire for the future renewal, which it awaits from the divine disposition.

Reply Obj. 7: In a heavenly body there is no potency perfected by a place or one that is made for the end of being in a certain place. Rather, the potency for a place in a heavenly body is like the potency of an artisan to making different houses of the same model, such that if he makes one of these he is said to not have the potency in vain. Likewise, in whatever location a heavenly body is placed, the potency in it as regards place will not remain incomplete or in vain.

Reply Obj. 8: Even though a heavenly body by its nature is equally related to every location possible for it, if it is compared to what is outside of itself, it is not equally related to all locations but in certain respects is more nobly disposed to one location than another, as with regard to us the sun is more nobly disposed in the day than in the night. And thus, since the whole renewal of the world has an ordering to man, it is probable that in that renewal heaven will have the most noble location possible with respect to our dwelling.

Or, according to some, heaven rests in the location in which it was made, for otherwise some revolution of heaven would remain incomplete. But this argument seems unfitting. For since there is a revolution in heaven that is only finished in thirty-six thousand years, it would follow that the world would have to last so long, which does not seem probable. (Aquinas refers to the so-called “Great Year,” the period wherein all the heavenly spheres complete a full revolution. The figure 36,000 comes from a calculation of Hipparchus that Ptolemy cites in Almagest VII.2. The same came to be esteemed as enjoying Plato’s authority, probably on the basis of Timaeus 39b-d and Republic 546b-c.) And besides, according to this it could be known when the world would have to end. For from astronomers we can gather with probability in what location the heavenly bodies were made, considering the number of years reckoned from the beginning of the world, and the certain number of years in which the world would return to like arrangement could be known in the same way. But the time of the world’s end is held to be unknown.

Reply Obj. 9: Time will at some point come to an end when the motion of heaven comes to an end, and that last ‘now’ will not be the beginning of the future. For the stated definition is given of ‘now’ only as continuing the parts of time, not as terminating all of time. And this was spoken of, in Book 2, Distinction 1, when dealing with the eternity of the world.

Reply Obj. 10: The motion of the heavens is not called natural as if being a part of nature in the way that the principles of a nature are called natural. Nor is is it called natural in the sense its active principal is in then nature of the body, but only a receptive one. Now its active principle is in a spiritual substance, as the Commentator comments on On the Heavens 1. And thus it is not unfitting if by the newness of glory that motion is taken away. For when it is taken away the nature of the heavenly body will not be varied.

Reply to Sed Contra 1 and 2: The first two arguments to the contrary we concede, since they conclude in due manner. (There are five sed contra arguments. It seems as if Thomas is conceding the first three (though mentioning only two), and then responding to the fourth and fifth.)

Reply to Sed Contra 4: But because the other two seem to conclude that the motion of heaven will cease naturally, we must reply to them. To the first of these, then, it should be said that motion ceases when it possesses whatever it exists for the sake of, if this follows the motion and not if it accompanies the motion. Now what the heavenly motion exists for, according to the philosophers, accompanies the motion, namely, imitation of the divine goodness in the causality it has over lower bodies. And thus it is not necessary for this motion to cease naturally.

Reply to Sed Contra 5: Even though immovability is more noble than motion simply, motion in something that can obtain a perfect participation in the divine goodness through motion is more noble than rest in something that can in no way obtain that perfection through motion. And for this reason the earth, which is the lowest of bodies, is without motion, although God himself, who is the most noble of things, is without motion, and by him more noble bodies are moved. And so it is, too, that we can posit that the motions of the higher bodies are perpetual according to the course of nature, and never terminate in rest, even though the motion of lower bodies does terminate in rest.

Article 3

Whether the heavenly bodies will shine with greater clarity

Obj. 1: To the third we proceed thus. (Parallels: Super Heb. 12, lec. 5; Resp. de Art. 36, a. 27; Resp. de Art. 42, a. 36.) It seems that the brilliance of the heavenly bodies will not be increased in this renewal. For this renewal in lower bodies will be through purifying fire. But purifying fire never reaches the heavenly bodies, as was said in the preceding Distinction. Therefore the heavenly bodies will not be renewed by receiving greater brilliance.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, just as the heavenly bodies are the cause of generation in these lower bodies through motion, so also are they through light. But when generation ceases, the motion will cease, as has been said. Therefore likewise the light of the heavenly bodies will cease rather than increase.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, if the heavenly bodies are renewed when man is renewed, when his condition worsens their condition must worsen. But this does not seem probable, since these bodies are invariable as to what lies in their substance. Therefore neither will they be renewed when man is renewed.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, if their condition had been worsened at that time, they would have to be worsened as much as it is said that they will be bettered at man’s renewal. But it is said: the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun (Is 30:26). Therefore in the first state before sin, the moon would also have shone as much as the sun now shines. Therefore whenever the moon was above the earth, it would have made day as the sun does, and this appears manifestly false through what is said in Genesis 1:16, that the moon was made to preside over the night. Therefore when man sinned the heavenly bodies were not lessened in light, and thus neither, so it seems, will their light be increased at man’s glorification.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, the brilliance of the heavenly bodies is ordered to man’s use like other created things. But after the resurrection the sun’s clarity will not be of any use for man. For it is said: the sun shall be no more your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you by night (Is 60:19). And it is said that the city of the blessed has no need of sun or moon to shine upon it (Rev 21:23). Therefore their brilliance will not be increased.

Obj. 6: Furthermore, someone who made the greatest instruments for constructing some small piece of craftsmanship would not be a wise craftsman. But human beings are something very small in comparison to the heavenly bodies, which exceed man’s quantity by their immense magnitude almost without comparison. In fact, they exceed the quantity of the whole earth, which is to the heavens as a point is to a sphere, as astronomers say. Therefore, since God is most wise, it does not seem that man is the end for which the heavens were created. And thus it does not seem that the heavens were worsened at man’s sin, nor does it seem that at his glorification it will be bettered.

On the contrary (1), it says: the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun will be sevenfold (Is 30:26).

Furthermore (2), the whole world will be renewed for the better, as said above. But the heavens are the most noble part of the physical world. Therefore it will be changed for the better. But this can only be if it shines with greater brilliance. Therefore it will be made greater and its brilliance will increase.

Furthermore (3), all creation that groans and labors to give birth is awaiting the revelation of the future glory of the children of God, as is said in Rom 8:22–23. But this includes the heavenly bodies, as a Gloss on the same passage says. Therefore they await the glory of the saints. But they would not await it unless something accrued to them from this. Therefore brilliance, with which they are particularly adorned, will thereby accrue to them.

I answer that, as was said above, the world’s renewal has as its goal that in the renewed world God may be seen by man almost sensibly by manifest signs. Now creation especially leads to knowledge of God by its appearance and comeliness, which manifest the wisdom of the one who makes and governs it. This is why Scripture says: from the greatness and beauty of created things comes a corresponding perception of their Creator (Wis 13:5). Now the beauty of the heavenly bodies consists especially in light. Hence the glory of the stars is the beauty of heaven, a gleaming array in the heights of the Lord (Sir 43:10). And thus the heavenly bodies will be bettered particularly as regards brilliance. But the quantity and manner of their improvement are known only to him who will be its author.

Reply Obj. 1: The purifying fire will not cause the form of the renewal but will only dispose things to it by purifying from the filth of sin and the impurity of commingling, which is not found in the heavenly bodies. And thus, although the heavenly bodies are not to be purified by fire, they are to be renewed by divine power.

Reply Obj. 2: Motion does not imply a perfection in what is moved considered in itself, since it is the act of the imperfect, although it can pertain to the perfection of a corporeal thing as the cause of something. But light pertains to the perfection of any corporeal thing that shines, even considered in its substance. And thus after a heavenly body ceases to be the cause of generation, its motion will not remain, but its brilliance will.

Reply Obj. 3: On the passage: the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun (Is 30:26), a Gloss says: everything made for man’s sake grew worse at his fall, and the sun and moon were lessened in their light. Some understand this lessening as a real lessening of light. Nor does the fact that the heavenly bodies are by nature invariable stand in the way of this, since this variation happened by divine power. Others, however, understand the passage in a more probable way, saying that this lessening is not a real deficiency of light but regards the use of man, who after sin has not received as great a benefit from the light of the heavenly bodies as he would have before sin. This is the manner, too, in which it is said: cursed is the ground because of you . . . thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you (Gen 3:17–18), since even before it brought forth thorns and thistles, but not as a punishment to man. Yet it does not follow that, if the light of the heavenly bodies was not essentially lessened when man sinned, it is not really to be increased at his glorification. For man’s sin did not change the state of the universe, since before and after man also had an animal life, which needs the motion and generation of corporeal creation. But the glorification of man will change the state of the whole corporeal creation, as has been said. And thus the case is not similar.

Reply Obj. 4: This lessening, as is guessed with probability, was not in substance but in effect. For this reason it does not follow that the moon above the earth would have made day but that man would have had as great an advantage from the moon’s light as he now has from the sun’s light. And after the resurrection, when the moon’s light will be increased in reality, there will not be night anywhere on the earth but only at the center of the earth where hell will be. For then, as it is said, the moon will shine as much as the sun now shines, while the sun will shine seven times as much as it now does and the bodies of the blessed seven times more than the sun, although this is not proved by any authority or argument.

Reply Obj. 5: Something can be useful for man in two ways. In one way, because of necessity. And in this way no created thing will be useful for man, since he will have full sufficiency from God. And this is signified in the text of the Apostle cited, which says that the city will not need the sun or the moon. The other kind of use is for greater perfection. And in this way man will use other created things, though not as necessary for reaching the end as he now uses them.

Reply Obj. 6: This is Rabbi Moses’s argument, who thoroughly endeavors to disprove that the world was made for the sake of man. Hence what we read in the Old Testament about the renewal of the world, as is clear in the authorities cited from Isaiah, he claims is said metaphorically, as if we say that the sun is darkened for someone when he falls into great sorrow and does not know what to do (and this manner of speaking is also customary in Scripture). Or, vice versa, we say that the sun is shining more brightly for someone and the whole world is being renewed when he is turned from a state of sorrow to greatest exultation. But this is out of harmony with the authoritative texts and the saints’ interpretations. Hence to the argument introduced in this way we should respond that although heavenly bodies greatly exceed man’s body, the rational soul much more exceeds the heavenly bodies than they exceed the human body. Hence it is not unfitting if the heavenly bodies are said to have been made for the sake of man, though not as the principal end because the principal end of everything is God.

Article 4

Whether certain elements will be adorned with the glory of clarity

Obj. 1: To the fourth we proceed thus. (Parallels: above, a. 2, ad 5; Super Rom. 8, lec. 4.) It seems that the elements will not be renewed through the reception of any brilliance. For just as light is the proper quality of a heavenly body, so ‘hot’ and ‘cold,’ ‘moist’ and ‘dry’ are the proper qualities of the elements. Therefore just as heaven is renewed by an increase of brilliance, so also the elements should be renewed by an increase of active and passive qualities.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, ‘rare’ and ‘dense’ are proper qualities of the elements, which the elements will not lose in that renewal, as has been said. But the elements’ rarity and density seem to resist brightness, since a bright body must in some way be condensed. Hence the air’s rarity does not seem able to admit of brightness, and likewise neither does the density of the earth, which takes away penetrability. Therefore it cannot be the case that the elements will be renewed through the addition of any brightness.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, it is obvious that the damned will be in the earth. But they will be in darkness, not only internal darkness but also external darkness. Therefore earth will not be endowed with brightness in that renewal, and for the same reason neither will the other elements.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, increasing brightness in the elements increases heat. If, then, in that renewal there will be greater brightness in the elements than there now is, there will consequently also be greater hotness. And so it seems that they would be transmuted from their natural qualities to a certain degree, which is absurd.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, the good of the universe, which consists in order and harmony, is of greater worth than the good of any individual nature. But if a created being is made better, the universe’s good is taken away, since the same harmony no longer remains. Therefore if the elements, which should be without brightness according to the rank their nature holds in the universe, receive brightness, this will ruin the universe’s perfection rather than increase it.

On the contrary (1), it is said: I saw a new heaven and a new earth (Rev 21:1). But heaven will be renewed by greater brightness. Therefore so will earth and likewise the other elements.

Furthermore (2), lower corporeal things have been of use to man as well as higher ones. But physical creation will be recompensed for the service it has offered man, as a Gloss on Romans 8 seems to say. Therefore the elements, too, will be glorified with brightness, as will the other heavenly bodies.

Furthermore (3), a human being’s body is composed of the elements. Therefore the parts of the elements that are in man’s body will be glorified by the reception of brightness when man is glorified. But it is fitting for whole and part to have the same disposition. Therefore it is fitting that the elements themselves be endowed with brightness.

I answer that, just as there is an order of heavenly spirits to earthly spirits, namely human spirits, so also there is an order of heavenly bodies to earthly bodies. Now since corporeal creation was made for the sake of spiritual creation and is ruled by it, corporeal things must be disposed in like manner as spiritual ones. But in the final consummation of things lower spirits will receive the properties of higher spirits, since men will be like the angels in heaven, as is said in Matthew 22:30. And this will be inasmuch as what the human spirit has in common with the angelic spirit will attain its greatest perfection. Therefore, in the same way, since lower bodies share with heavenly bodies only in the nature of light and transparency, as it says in On the Soul 2, (Aristotle, On the Soul, Bk. 2, ch. 7, 418b7–14.) lower bodies must be most perfected in clarity or brightness. For this reason all the elements will be clothed with a certain brightness, not equally but according to their own mode. For earth, as it is said, will be on its outer surface transparent like glass, water will be like crystal, air like the sky, and fire like the luminaries of heaven.

Reply Obj. 1: As was said above, the renewal of the world has as its goal that man may see the divinity even by his senses in a certain way in corporeal things through manifest signs. Now among our senses sight is the most spiritual and subtle. And thus all lower corporeal things must most of all be bettered as regards visible qualities, whose principle is light. Elemental qualities, however, pertain to touch, which is the most material, and an excess of contrareity in them is more unpleasant. The excess of light, on the other hand, will be delightful, since it has no contrariety except on account of the weakness of the organ, which then will not be weak.

Reply Obj. 2: Air will be bright not as if casting rays but as transparent and illuminated. As for earth, although of its nature it possesses opacity due to lack of light, by divine power it will be clothed with the glory of clarity on its surface without prejudice to its density.

Reply Obj. 3: In the place of hell the earth will not be glorified by brightness. Rather, in place of this glory that part of the earth will have the rational spirits of men and demons, who, although lowest by reason of fault, are higher than any corporeal quality by the dignity of their nature. Or we may say that even if the whole earth is glorified, the reprobate will nevertheless be in external darkness. For even the fire of hell that will shed light on them in some way will not be able to shed light on them in another regard, as will be said in the last Distinction.

Reply Obj. 4: This brightness will be in these lower corporeal things as it is in heavenly bodies, in which it does not cause hotness. For these bodies will then be unalterable as the heavenly bodies are now.

Reply Obj. 5: The order of the universe will not be taken away on account of the improvement of the elements. For all the other parts will also be better, and so the same harmony will remain.

Article 5

Whether brute animals, plants, and mineral bodies will remain

Obj. 1: To the fifth we proceed thus. (Parallels: De potentia, q. 5, a. 9; Comp. theo. 170.) It seems that plants and animals will remain in this renewal. For nothing ought to be subtracted from the elements that pertains to their adornment. But the elements are said to be adorned by the animals and plants. Therefore they will not be taken away in this renewal.

Obj. 2: Furthermore, just as the elements have served man, so also have animals, plants, and mineral bodies. But the elements will be glorified on account of the aforementioned service. Therefore animals, plants, and minerals will also be glorified.

Obj. 3: Furthermore, the universe will remain imperfect if something pertaining to its perfection is taken away. But the species of animals, plants, and minerals pertain to the universe’s perfection. Since, then, it ought not to be said that the world will remain imperfect in its renewal, it seems that we must say that plants and animals remain.

Obj. 4: Furthermore, animals and plants have a more noble form than the elements themselves. But the world will be changed for the better in that final renewal. Therefore animals and plants have more claim to remaining than the elements, since they are more noble.

Obj. 5: Furthermore, it is unfitting to say that a natural appetite is frustrated. But according to natural appetite, animals and plants desire perpetual being, if not individually, at least in species. And their continual generation is ordered to this, as it says in On the Generation of Animals 2. (Aristotle, Generation of Animals, Bk. 2, ch. 1, 731b24–732a11.) Therefore it is unfitting to say that these species will eventually come to an end.

On the contrary (1), if plants and animals will remain, either all of them will or some of them will. If all of them will, then even brute animals that have previously died will have to rise as men will rise. This cannot be said because, since their form gives way to nothing, it cannot be resumed as numerically the same. However if not all but some of them will remain, since there is no greater reason why one rather than another should remain forever, it seems that none of them will remain forever. But whatever will remain after the world’s renewal will exist forever, with the cessation of generation and corruption. Therefore plants and animals will not exist at all after the renewal of the world.

Furthermore (2), according to the Philosopher in On Generation and Corruption 2, (Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption, Bk. 2, ch. 10.) in animals, plants, and other such corporeal things, perpetuity of species is only preserved through the continuation of heavenly motion. But at that time heavenly motion will come to an end. Therefore there perpetuity will not be able to be preserved in these species.

Furthermore (3), when the end ceases, whatever is directed toward the end ought to cease. But animals and plants were made to sustain the animal life of man. For this reason Genesis 9:3 says: as I gave you the green herbs, I have given all flesh to you. But after this renewal there will not be animal life in man. Therefore neither plants nor animals ought to remain.

I answer that, since the world’s renewal will occur for the sake of man, it must conform to man’s renewal. Now man, renewed from the state of corruption, will pass to incorruption, to the state of perpetual rest, as Scripture says: this perishable nature must put on the imperishable (1 Cor 15:53). And thus the world will be renewed in such a way that, leaving behind all corruption and transmutation, it will remain forever at rest. For this reason, nothing will be able to be ordered to this renewal except what has an order to incorruption. Now this includes the heavenly bodies, the elements, and men. For the heavenly bodies are incorruptible by their nature, both in whole and in part. The elements, in turn, are corruptible in part and incorruptible in whole. Finally, men are corrupted both in whole and in part, but on the part of matter not on the part of form, namely the rational soul, which remains incorrupt after man’s corruption. Brute animals, plants, minerals, and all mixed bodies, however, are corrupted both in whole and in part, both on the part of matter losing the form and on the part of form that does not remain in act. And so there is no way in which they have an order to incorruption. For this reason they will not remain in that renewal, but only the things that were stated.

Reply Obj. 1: Bodies of this sort are said to be for the adornment of the elements inasmuch as general active and passive powers that exist in the elements are channeled into specific actions. And thus they are for the adornment of the elements in the state of action and passion. But this state will not remain in the elements. This is why neither animals nor plants must remain.

Reply Obj. 2: Neither animals nor plants nor any other corporeal things have merited anything in serving man, since they lack freedom of will. Rather, certain corporeal things are said to be recompensed in that man has merited the renewal of what has an order to renewal. But plants and animals do not have an order to renewal, as said before. Thus man has not merited their renewal from the fact that one can only merit for another what the other is capable of, as is the case in relation to oneself as well. For this reason, even granted that brute animals would merit in their service of man, they would still not be renewed.

Reply Obj. 3: Just as we assign man’s perfection in several ways, for there is the perfection of created nature and of glorified nature, so also there are two kinds of perfection for the universe: one perfection according to the state of this mutability, the second according to the state of future newness. Now plants and animals pertain to the perfection of the universe according to the present state, not according to the state of that newness, since they do not have an order to it.

Reply Obj. 4: Even though animals and plants are more noble than the elements themselves in certain respects, the elements are nobler as regards the order to incorruption, as is clear from what has been said.

Reply Obj. 5: The natural appetite for perpetuity that is in animals and plants is to be taken with reference to the motion of heaven, namely, to remain in being as long as the motion of heaven will last. For there cannot be an appetite in the effect to remain beyond its own cause. And thus, when the motion of the first-moved ceases, if plants and animals do not remain as regards their species, it does not follow that a natural appetite is being frustrated.

Exposition of the Text

Even though he will raise them by the power of his divinity, and not of his humanity. (Sententiae IV, 48.3 (277). 1.) On the contrary, it is said in a Gloss (Glossa ordinaria, PL 114:549.) on 1 Corinthians 15 that Christ’s resurrection was the cause of our resurrection. But Christ rose in his humanity. Therefore it is by the power of his humanity that he will raise bodies. And it should be said that, as Damascene says in Book 3, (John Damascene, On the Orthodox Faith, Bk. 3, ch. 15, PG 94:1509.) Christ’s humanity is like an organ of his divinity, as the body is an organ of the soul. From this a given effect can be attributed to Christ’s humanity in two ways. In one way, in itself, as we attribute to it touching a leper and things of this sort. In the other way, as the instrument of his divinity, as we attribute to it the cleansing of the leper by his touch. Now we attribute to Christ’s humanity that his resurrection causes ours, in the way that he cleanses a leper by his touch. And because an instrument acts only by the power of the principal agent, so it is that we say that Christ will raise bodies not by the power of his humanity but of his divinity, although his resurrection is the cause of our resurrection in the way that touching a leper is the cause of cleansing.

“The resurrection of souls happens through the Word, the Son of God; the resurrection of bodies happens through the Word made flesh in the son of man.” (Sent. IV, 48.3 (277). 2 citing Augustine, In Ioannem, tr. 19 nn 15–16.) On the contrary, just as Christ’s resurrection is said to be the cause of our corporeal resurrection, so also it is the cause of our spiritual resurrection, as is clear through the passage: raised for our justification (Rom 4:25). And it should be said that both happen principally by divine power and, as it were, instrumentally through the operation of Christ’s humanity. Yet the spiritual resurrection is appropriated to the divinity and the corporeal to the humanity by a kind of appropriation, to preserve likeness between the effect and the cause.

It is not the Father alone who is life, but also the Son with him and the Holy Spirit is “the same life.” This life “pertains to the soul, not to the body.” (Sent. IV, 48.3 (277). 3 citing Augustine, In Ioannem, tr. 19 n. 14.) On the contrary, all life, both spiritual and corporeal, arises from the divine life and imitates it, as is clear from Dionysius in On the Divine Names 6. (Pseudo-Dionysius, On the Divine Names, ch. 6, PG 3:855.) And it should be said that this life is said not to pertain to the body because the body cannot be a participant in it through knowledge and love.

“Angels will bear the sign of the cross.” (Sent. IV, 48.4 (278). 2 citing Chrysostom, De cruce et latrone, Bk. 1.) On the contrary, the sign of the cross does not have an order to incorruption and thus will not remain after the renewal. And it should be said that the sign of the cross is not taken here as meaning the actual wood of the Lord’s cross but instead some representation of it.

The columns of heaven are in awe of his coming. (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 1 citing Job 26, 11.) The columns of heaven mean here the angels who move the heavens, since the whole efficacy of heavenly action is maintained by their power because all bodies are ruled through a rational spirit of life, as Augustine says in On the Trinity 3. (Augustine, On the Trinity (CCSL 50), Bk. 3, ch. 4.)

As much as the sun shone in the first creation of seven days, before the sin of the first man, so much shall it shine after the judgment. (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 3.) This comparison should be understood with reference to the advantage that man receives from the light of the heavenly bodies, which was greater before sin than after, though after the resurrection they will really shine more, as has been said.

He means that the sun and the moon will not be useful for their light to those who will be “in eternal blessedness.” (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 5 citing Interlinear gloss on Is. 60, 19.) This should be understood of the usefulness of necessity, as said before.

Lest the impious, subjected to torments under the earth, enjoy their light. (Sent. IV, 48.5 (279). 6 citing Isidore, De ordine creaturarum, ch. 5 nn. 6–7.) In this regard Isidore seems to have thought that hell is on some part of the earth’s surface, though others say that it is in the depth of the earth. Some, however, say that Isidore also thought that hell is in the depth of the earth but that from some place on the earth’s surface there is a large aperture in the earth from which the sun’s light could reach others who are in hell, if the sun circled the earth. It is not altogether certain which of these is true.