Chapter XVIII. Good and evil in exterior acts (q.20)

ART. 1. FIRST CONCLUSION. GOOD AND EVIL ARE FIRST FOUND IN THE INTERIOR ACT

_ Tuis is true, whether we consider the goal intended, or the ways and means undertaken. The exterior act, being the effect of the will, derives its good or evil from the will.

Second conclusion. But if we consider the exterior act in its object as presented by reason, then its good or evil comes, not from our will, but from the object which differentiates our will. Good intention does not justify a medium that is in itself evil.

This twofold conclusion is based on the distinction between differentiation by purpose and differentiation by object. For instance, in almsgiving the exterior act, as object, antecedes the will, whereas, as effect, it follows the will.

ART. 2. EXTERIOR GOOD AND EVIL IN RELATION TO THE WILL

We must steer between two extremes: the subjectivism which justifies even evil deeds by a good intention, and the pragmatism which judges only by external results.

Four conclusions. 1. The good or evil which the exterior act derives from the purpose depends altogether on the will. 2. The good or evil which the exterior act derives from object and circumstances depends on conformity with right reason. Robbing the rich is wrong, even if it is done with a good intention, such as almsgiving. 3. The exterior act is not simply good unless the act of the will is good, in its purpose, in its object, and in its principal circumstances. The exterior act is simply evil if the will is evil, either by its subjective purpose, or by its object, or by a principal circumstance.

ART. 3. INTERRELATIONS OF EXTERIOR ACT TO INTERIOR ACT

Four conclusions. 1. These two acts, interior and exterior, looked at morally, are one act, though physically they are distinct. The act of the will is the formal element, and the exterior act is the material element, but form and matter form one reality. 2. One and the same act can contain different kinds of goodness or of evil. 3. Interior goodness or evil is not identified with exterior goodness or evil except when goodness or evil arises merely from subjective purpose. 4. When the exterior act is good by its object and circumstances, its goodness differs from that interior goodness which arises from subjective purpose.

ART. 4. DOES THE EXTERIOR ACT INCREASE THE GOODNESS OR EVIL OF THE INTERIOR ACT?

This article carries great spiritual importance. Suppose a man robbed of money meant for almsgiving: Is he less good before God than if he had in fact given the alms? Again: Does actual martyrdom add goodness to a man’s efficacious desire to die for Christ? Or, once more, does actual theft increase the evil of the desire to steal? +

On this matter, some fail by defect; namely, the Quietists, who hold that all exterior works are useless. Others err by excess, not considering the greater importance of the interior act.

First conclusion. The exterior act, precisely as execution of the interior act, does not add goodness or evil in relation to the essential reward or punishment.

Authority. Abraham ? is praised as if he had in fact immo-

GOOD AND EVIL EXTERIOR ACTS 301 lated his son. He who looks on a woman to lust after her has already committed adultery with her in his heart.’

Reason. The exterior act, as object, has already been willed internally. As a mere external act, it has only an extrinsic goodness or evil, denominated from the goodness or evil of the interior act. The interior act alone has intrinsic liberty, whereas use of the members can be violently impeded, Virtue, like grace and glory, is independent of human violence. “If I be violated against my will, my crown of chastity is twofold.” ¢

But, let us note, in the absence of external occasion for merit, also the will to merit is often absent, whereas the external occasion tends to renew the interior act, which is then perfected in the exterior termination.

Second conclusion, The exterior act gives an accidental increase to the interior act.

Reason. All tendencies are perfected by attaining their terminus. Actual martyrdom does bring to the martyr, not only a reward, but also the aureole of martyrs, which is an accidental reward, an additional joy.

Are we bound to confess external acts of evil? Yes, because: first, evil is ordinarily intensified and multiplied by the exterior act; secondly, the exterior act is an evident sign of efficacious will; thirdly, because of harm done to others; fourthly by reason of greater adherence to sin, and a more difficult cure. The confessor is not merely a judge, but also a physician.

This doctrine is exaggerated by the Quietists, who hold that external acts, even though they proceed from an interior will, are still useless. This doctrine is clearly wrong, because also exterior acts are commanded by the law. That man lacks good will who can act and does not.

ART. 5. DO RESULTS AFFECT EXTERIOR GOODNESS AND EVIL?

The answer is affirmative, if the result has been foreseen and intended, or if it should have been foreseen. But if the result is accidental, and is in no way intended, it adds neither goodness nor evil, since it is in no way voluntary.

ART. 6. CONCLUSION

One and the same physical act may be morally manifold. Example: the act of walking, morally good by good intention, may, by change of intention, become morally evil.

The Consequences of Human Acts in the Line of Goodness and Evil (q. 21)

Four conclusions. 1. Relation to its end makes the human act either right or wrong. 2. Voluntary acts are either praiseworthy or blameworthy. 3. By retributive justice, human acts are either meritorious or demeritorious, in relation to men. 4. By retributive divine justice, human acts are meritorious or demeritorious in relation to God, “who will bring all things to judgment, be they good or bad.” * “Man is not ordained to the political community in his entire being, hence his acts are not necessarily meritorious or demeritorious in relation to the political community. But man in his entirety is ordained toward God; hence his every act is meritorious or demeritorious before God.” * “Man is a person, not merely an individual. And persons are born to know and love God.” *

6 Ad gum. T Etienne Gilson.

FOURTH PART

CONSCIENCE