Chapter XXII. The passions in general (q. 22-25)

Passions may be considered, psychologically, or morally, or ascetically,

1. Psychologically. Passion is a motion of the sense-appetite, arising from the imagination of good or evil, accompanied by corporeal transmutation. Moderns often give to passions the name of emotions, restricting the word “passion” to designate vehement or prolonged emotions.

Sense-appetite is the formal element of passion; the corporeal mutation is the material element.

DIVISION OF PASSIONS

Passions are either concupiscible or irascible.

A. Concupiscible passions are caused by

1. a sense-good, which attracts (a) simply, and is called love, (b) when absent, and is called desire; (c) when present, and is called gladness.

2. a sense-evil, which repels (a) simply, and is called hatred; (b) when absent, and is called aversion; (c) when present, and is called sadness.

B. Irascible passions are caused by

1. asense-good that is difficult, but (a) attainable, and is called hope; or (b) unattainable, and is called despair.

2. a sense-evil that is arduous, but (a) still easy to repel (audacity); or hard to repel (fear); or present, and calling for vengeance (anger).

First among all passions, and the origin of all others, is sense-love. Without love, no desire and no joy, no hatred, no aversion, no sadness. Again, in the irascible passions, without love there is neither hope nor despair, neither fear nor audacity, no rising up in anger.

2. Moral view. Here we meet a twofold error, one by defect, and the other by excess. The hedonists hold that all passions are morally legitimate expansions of our nature. Thus Aristippus among the ancients, Fourrier and Saint Simon among the moderns. By excess, the Stoics condemn all passions, as being opposed to reason and nature, and hence to be eradicated. Aristotle holds that passions in themselves are neither morally good nor morally evil, though some of them are naturally laudable, e.g., commiseration and modesty. They become morally good when they are commanded or directed by reason, otherwise they become morally evil. St. Thomas * evolves this doctrine under three headings.

a) Passions in themselves are indifferent to moral good or evil, since morality depends on the laws discovered by reason. Anger uncontrolled by reason is bad, but subject to reason (in Christ, say), it is good.

b) Passions become voluntary by relation to reason, Unregulated by reason, they degenerate into vice (pleasure becomes gluttony or lust).

c) Passions, commanded and moderated by right will, are aids to virtue. Thus we find them in Christ, who felt sadness even unto death, and whose anger drove the moneylenders out of the temple. Rejoice, says St. Paul, with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep. But when unregulated, or when commanded by evil will, passions become the roots of vices, especially of capital vices.

ART. 3. DOES PASSION INCREASE OR DIMINISH THE GOODNESS OR THE EVIL OF AN ACT? (Q. 24)

It might seem that passion always diminishes the goodness of the act, first, because passion perturbs reason; secondly, because we must imitate God in whom there are no passions;

PASSIONS IN GENERAL 329 thirdly, since he who sins in passion sins less, it seems that he who does good passionately does a lesser good.

Conclusion. The perfection of moral good requires the cooperation of man’s sense-appetite.

Proof. Moral good grows by the number of its cooperating sources, and sense-appetite, subject to reason, is such a source. Passion that antecedes reason is not voluntary, and such passion may indeed cloud the judgment and diminish responsibility. But when passion follows upon deliberate choice, it does increase either the goodness or the evil of the action. Perfection requires that all passions be regulated by reason, just as are the external members. My heart and my flesh, says the Psalmist, exult in the living God. Thus fortitude established a just medium between the defects of fear and the excesses of audacity. Saints are men of strong passions, but passions inspired by zeal for the glory of God and the salvation of souls.

Ascetical view. The passions, in themselves morally indifferent, are not to be eradicated, as if they were vices or sins, but are to be regulated, moderated, educated, to be like trained horses driven by reason and faith.

Corollary. Training must be proportioned to its purpose. Even extreme anger or sadness or fear need not go beyond right reason. Moses was very angry at the adoration of the calf. The zeal and indignation of Phineas was praiseworthy. Heli was not sufficiently indignant against his children. Jeremias was often very sad, and rightly so. Christ drove the sellers from the Temple, was sad unto death, wept over Jerusalem, moaned in spirit.